2022年生产和企业组织课件

1、生产和企业组织第6章生产理论和边际产品6.1生产系统FirmsLaborCapitalResourceGood1Service1GoodnServicen3生产函数The production function specifies the maximum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputs.It is defined for a given state of engineering and technical knowledge.It looks like this:Q = F(K, L, R)4Q= F(K,

2、L,R)Q is the quantity of some products you want to produce.K is the capital or plant and equipment that you will need for the production.L is the number of employees or quantity of labor.R is a catch-all (包括所有的) term for other things like raw materials (原料) and energy. F is the state of the current

3、technology. 5专业术语The production function specifies the maximum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputs for a given state of engineering and technical knowledge.要点：给定投入时的各个可能的产量中最大的产量。在给定的工程和技术知识条件下。6总产量和平均产量Total product designates the total amount of output produced in physical

4、units.Average product equals total product divided by total units of input.说明：平均产量通常是指某一种投入要素的平均产量。7边际产量The marginal product (边际产量) of an input such as labor is the extra output added by 1 extra unit of that input while other inputs are hold constant. 其他要素保持不变，一种投入要素增加一单位，带来的产出的增加量。8边际产量图示FirmQ+MPAd

5、d 1 unit of some input and hold other inputs constantThe MP is extra output.KLR+19最大产出劳动的边际产量的含义是：投入 N+1 单位劳动时的最大产量与投入 N 单位劳动时的最大产量之差。增加 1 单位劳动后，所有的分工都要按最优方式重新安排，然后得出投入 N+1 劳动的产出水平。104000300020001000300020001000 0 1 2 34 5 1 2 34 5LaborLaborMarginal product (per unit of labor)Total product11报酬递减定律Un

6、der the law of diminishing returns, a firm will get less and less extra output when it adds additional units of an input while holding other inputs fixed. In other words, the marginal product of each unit of input will decline as the amount of that input increases, holding all other inputs constant.

7、1213Units of laborTotal productMarginal productAverage product0012000200023000150033500116743800950539007802000100050030010014边际产量和总产量的关系产量劳动力总产量加速上升边际产量最大时，总产量上升最快。总产量边际产量总产量下降总产量减速上升边际产量为0时，总产量最大。15平均产量和总产量的关系产量劳动力平均产量增大平均产量最大阶段总产量平均产量总产量下降阶段阶段平均产量减小16生产的比例性生产要求投入多种要素，而且要素之间通常有一定的比例性要求。有些生产要求投入要素之

8、间的比例性高一些，有些则要求低一些。例如，工业生产的比例性要求资本一般高一点，农业生产的比例性要求资本低一点。正是要素投入的比例性要求，形成一种要素的报酬递减现象。17实际的报酬递减定律当其他的投入固定，而一种投入的数量由 0 逐步增加时，边际产量开始可能递增，但迟早递减。OMarginal productQuantity of labor18说明我们在计算一种要素的边际产品时，利用“投入 N+1 单位要素时的最大产量与投入 N 单位要素时的最大产量之差”来衡量。对于劳动而言，较多的人数可以形成更好的分工模式，对于资本而言，较多的资本可以使用更有效的生产方法，因此，可能使边际产品存在递增阶段。

9、19规模报酬问题What would happen to wheat production if land, labor, water, and other inputs were increased by the same proportion (比例)? These questions refer to the returns to scale (规模报酬).20FirmKLRQ规模报酬图示aKaLaRbQa 1 ?a ba ba = b21规模报酬的三种情形There are three important cases of returns to scale: Constant retu

10、rns to scale (规模报酬不变), Increasing returns to scale (规模报酬递增), Decreasing returns to scale (规模报酬递减). 22规模报酬不变Constant returns to scale denote a case where a change in all inputs leads to a proportional (成比例的) change in output.手工艺行业往往具有规模报酬不变性。a = bFirmKLRQaKaLaRbQ23规模报酬递增Increasing returns to scale (a

11、lso called economies of scale ) arise when an increase in all inputs leads to a more-than-proportional increase in the level of output.化工企业往往具有规模报酬递增性。a bFirmKLRQaKaLaRbQ26导致规模报酬递减的原因Causes of diseconomies (不经济) of scale: plant may get too big for effective management; workers may begin to feel alie

12、nated (疏远的) from their jobs.管理活动自身一般随着规模增大而效率递减，当管理因素的份额较大时，将显现规模报酬递减性。27范围经济性Economies of scope occur when a number of different products can be produced more efficiently together than apart.大炮面包产品转换曲线生产大炮和面包的规模收益不变28范围经济性说明大炮面包产品转换曲线面包数量大炮数量保持面包数量不变，可以生产更多的大炮。保持大炮数量不变，可以生产更多的面包。29短期和长期We define th

13、e short run (短期) as a period in which firms can adjust production by changing variable factors (可变要素) such as materials and labor but cannot change fixed factors (固定要素) such as capital.The long run (长期) is a period sufficiently long so that all factors including capital can be adjusted.30“短期和长期”的说明经

14、济学意义上的短期和长期不是以时间长短划分的。当一个农户的土地面积给定时，他的经营就是短期的。如果他每半年就可以重新决定租用多少土地，那么半年以上的时间对他来说就是长期的。对于一个汽车制造厂，如果在三年的时间里无法建设新的生产流水线，那么三年的时间对它来说就属于短期生产。31短期分析和长期分析短期分析通常考虑某一种要素的数量变化对于产出的影响。例如，劳动的边际产量和平均产量等。长期分析通常考虑所有要素的数量变化对于产出的影响。例如，规模报酬现象。32技术变革Technological change refers to in the processes for producing goods an

15、d services, changes in old products, or introduction of new products.Process innovation (工艺创新): new engineering knowledge improves production techniques for existing products.Product innovation (产品创新): new or improved products are introduced in the marketplace.33技术变革改变生产函数1995 Technology2005 Technol

16、ogyInputTotal productTechnological change shifts production function upward.3435背景知识技术进步的机制：是计划经济还是市场经济具有优势？在社会产品结构简单的历史条件下，计划经济具有一定的优势，但具有较大的政治风险。在产品多样化而且更新更替速度加快的历史条件下，市场经济具有明显的优势。36总量生产函数Q is the total output; K is the capital; L is the labor.The famous Cobb-Douglas production function:Q = F(K, L

17、)Y=AK0.25L1-0.2537C-D 生产函数的规模收益Y=AK0.25L1-0.25A(2K)0.25(2L)1-0.25=2YA(1.01K)0.25L1-0.251.0025YAK0.25(1.01L)1-0.251.0075Y38生产力的测定We can use the aggregate production function to measure a countrys productivity and technological change.In measuring productivity, we denote labor productivity as the amou

18、nt of output per unit of labor; capital productivity as output per unit of capital; and total factor productivity (全要素生产力) as output per unit of total inputs of capital and labor.39美国的经验数据Total factor productivity has been increasing throughout (贯穿) this century.The capital stock (资本存量) has been gro

19、wing faster than the number of work-hours.Capitals rate of return has remained about the same.In the last two decades, all measures of productivity have shown a marked growth slowdown (减速).40技术进步贡献的测定从宏观的角度来说，可以认为生产具有规模报酬不变的特征。假如一国生产可以用Y=AK0.25L0.75描述，如果劳动数量增长了2%，资本数量增长了5%，那么应该导致产量增长：A(1.05K)0.25(1.

20、02L)0.751.0274AK0.25L0.75当经济实际增长4%时，若没有其他因素影响，那么技术进步的贡献为4%2.74%1.26%41企业组织6.2企业的本质Why does production generally take place in firms:Production is organized in firms because of economies of specialization;To raise resources for large-scale production;To manage and coordinate the production process.43

21、三种企业组织形式The Individual Proprietorship (个人所有制)The partnership (合伙制)The Corporation (公司制)关于企业的见解4445现代公司的核心特征The ownership (所有权) of a corporation is determined by the ownership of the companys common stock (普通股票).In principle, the shareholders (股东) control the companies they own.The corporations manag

22、ers and directors (董事) have the legal power to make decisions for the corporation.46公司制的利弊The corporation may have perpetual (永久的) succession (连续性) or existence.The corporations managers can make decisions quickly.Corporate stockholders enjoy limited liability (有限责任).Corporate income is doubly taxed

23、 (双重征税).47大公司的必要性Efficient production often requires large-scale enterprises, which need billions of dollars of invested capital. Corporations, with limited liability and a convenient management structure, can attract large supplies of private capital, produce a variety of related products, and pool

24、 investor risks.48所有权与经营权分离Because the stock of large companies is so widely dispersed, ownership is typically divorced from control. Individual owners cannot easily affect the actions of large corporations.49大公司的所有权与经营权分离1996年， AT&T（美国电话电报公司）有230多万股东。由于大公司的股票过度分散化，由此导致所有权与经营权的分离。所有权与经营权5051对于经营者过高收

25、入的批评Critics answer that the most important reason for the trend is the divorce of ownership from control. This is the symptom (症状) of a malady (弊端) known as the principal-agent problem (委托-代理问题), wherein the incentives of the agents (the managers) are not appropriately aligned with the interests of the principal (the owners).52背景知识公司组织要点：1. 所有权利用组织制度控制经营者；2. 赋予权利必予以监督；3. 将激励机制建立在经营者关心个人利益的基础上。53现代公司制度的制约机制利用组织机构来保证股东的利