英语原文-基层社会治理中“拆违”的瓶颈与对策研究

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TowardCommunityEngagementInCityGovernance:

EvaluatingNeighborhoodCouncilReforminLosAngeles

JulietMusso,ChristopherWeare,MarkElliot,AliciaKitsuse,EllenShiau

CivicEngagementPublicPolicyBriefing

©2007USCCivicEngagementInitiative&USCNeighborhoodParticipationProject

TheauthorswouldliketoacknowledgeCivicEngagementInitiativeDirectorTerryL.Cooperforhisleadership,andDr.Kyu-NahmJunandJonathanHussainfortheirexpertresearchcontributions.WewouldalsoliketothankRosalynnSilvaforherworkinreportlayoutandproduction.

FORFURTHERINFORMATION:

USCCIVICENGAGEMENTINITIATIVE

SCHOOLOFPOLICY,PLANNINGANDDEVELOPMENTUNIVERSITYOFSOUTHERNCALIFORNIA

LOSANGELES,CA90089-0626

\h

TOWARDCOMMUNITYENGAGEMENTINCITYGOVERNANCE:EVALUATINGNEIGHBORHOODCOUNCILREFORMINLOSANGELES

JulietMusso,ChristopherWeare,MarkElliot,AliciaKitsuse,EllenShiau

POLICYBRIEF

ReportingonastudysupportedbytheRalphandDoraHaynesFoundation,theIrvineFoundation,andtheNationalScienceFoundation

T

hisreportpresentsfindingsfromtheNeighborhood Participation Project’smulti-yearstudyofneighborhoodcouncilimplementationintheCityofLosAngeles.Wediscusstheextenttowhichthesystemhasdevelopedtheinstitutionalrequisitesforsuccess,including democratically legitimate councils,politicalinnovationstosupportparticipation,andthecapacityforneighborhoodcouncilstoactonissuesofinteresttotheirconstituentcommunities.Wealsoconsiderthelong-termeffectsofthereformonpoliticalnetworksandciviccultureinLosAngeles.Wefindamixedrecordofsuccess.Whileacitywidesystemofcertifiedcouncilsisinplace,andsomeneighborhoodcouncilshavedevelopedthecapacitytoactonbehalfoftheirconstituentcommunities,otherneighborhoodcouncilsstruggle,andtheCityhasdoneapoorjobofdevelopingparticipatoryarenaswithinwhichcouncilscaninteractconstructivelywith

citygovernment.

ThecharterreformthatcreatedneighborhoodcouncilswasenactedinJune,1999.Formulationofaplanandrelatedordinancestostructuresystemdevelopmentrequiredanadditionaltwoyears,andcertificationwaslaunchedlatein2001.By2004,asystemofcertifiedneighborhoodcouncilswithelectedboardswaslargelyinplace.Atthiswriting,thereare86councils,ofwhich83haveelectedboards,advisingtheCityonbehalf

ofresidentialcommunitiesthataverageabout39,000insize.Thissystememergedfromthegrassroots;theself-organizationofcouncilsmustbeattributedtothededicatedeffortsofcommunityvolunteers,goodnewsforacitythatisfrequentlymalignedasdevoidofcivicidentity.

Noweightyearsintothereform,weseevariableresultsregardingthelegitimacy,capacity,andinfluenceofneighborhoodcouncils.Themostobvious—andregrettable—shortcomingisthatneighborhoodcouncilsdonotadequatelyincorporatetheculturaldiversityofLosAngeles.Homeownerswithlongtenureinthecommunityaremostheavilyrepresented,whichisnotsurprisingconsideringthatthecouncilsaregeographicallydefinedadvisoryboards.TheramificationofthisstakeholderorientationisthatLatinosareunderrepresented,andboardsaredisproportionatelywealthy,white,andhighlyeducated.Theserepresentativebiasesendangerthepoliticallegitimacyofthecouncils,andraisequestionsregardingtheirabilitytospeakandactonbehalfofdiverseconstituencies.

WealsoidentifycriticalshortcomingsintheCity’sdevelopmentofpoliticalreforms—“empowermentinnovations”—thatwouldsupportconstructiveengagementofneighborhoodcouncilsingovernance.TheChartercontainsfiveprovisionsintendedtocreateforumsforinteractiontoconnectneighborhoodcouncilsinadvisingpolicyformulationandservicedelivery.TheseprovisionsreceivedscantattentionduringtheCity’splanningofneighborhoodcouncils(theplanfocusedprimarilyonDONEresponsibilitiesandcertificationprocedures),andinstitutionalsupportforcouncilinvolvementwiththeCitysubsequentlyhasevolvedinanadhocandhaltingmanner.ThereisnotadequatesupportforcouncilengagementwiththeCity.WeadvocatethatCityofficialsbroadentheirmentalmappingoftheneighborhoodcouncilsystemtocontainnotonlythe86councils,butalsostructuredarenasfortheirinteractionwiththeCityCouncil,theMayor’soffice,boardsandcommissions,andcitydepartments.

FourconditionsforsuccessareidentifiedinBerry,Portney,andThomson’s(1994)renownedstudyofneighborhoodcouncils:acitywidesystem,adequateresourcesupport,politicalsupport,andempowermentinnovationstosupportparticipationincitygovernance.Whilethecitywidesystemisinplace,politicalsupportandinstitutionalreformshavebeenlacking.Moreover,itisnotclearthatneighborhoodcouncilshavetheleadershipresourcesrequiredtooperateeffectively.ConsequentlyneighborhoodcouncilcapacityvariesconsiderablyacrosstheCity.Giventheexigenciesofself-maintenance,andthelimitedassistanceprovidedbytheCity,itisnotsurprisingthatsomeneighborhoodcouncilsstrugglewiththeoutreachrequiredtosustainletalonetodiversifystakeholderparticipation.Whilegroupconflictandelectoralcontroversiesgetpoliticalattention,manymorecouncilsstrugglequietlytogaintractiononcommunityissues.

Theneighborhoodcouncilagendaisdiverse.Whileinstancesoflanduseoppositiongainattention,NIMBYismconstitutesarelativelysmallspaceontheagenda.Neighborhoodcouncilsshapecommunitydesignguidelines,assistlocalcommunityorganizations,organizefestivalsandinvestincommunitybeautification.Whatisnotwidelyunderstoodisthattheydevoteanextraordinaryshareofeffortstoself-maintenanceandexternalrelationsactivities.Theseoperationaltasksarenecessarytosurvival,andtheyabsorbatremendousamountofvolunteertime.NeighborhoodcouncilsandDepartmentofNeighborhoodEmpowermentstaffagreethatoutreachisthesinglemostdifficultchallengeforneighborhoodcouncils.

Neighborhoodcouncilsystemsinothercitieshavebeenfoundtoimprovecivicculturebydeepeningthequalityofparticipationandfosteringmorepositiveattitudestowardcitygovernment.Manyoftheseeffectsareattributabletotherelationshipsthatdevelopamongneighborhoodcouncils,theirstakeholderconstituents,andcityofficials.Connectionstocommunitystakeholdersareimportanttoinformcouncilmembersoflocalneedsandpreferencesandenablingcouncilstoleverageresourcesforcommunityaction.Relationshipswithcityofficialsinturnconnectcouncilstotheagentsofgovernment,promotinginformationexchangeandhelpingtofosterunderstandingandopportunitiesforpartnership.

Wedonotseethecouncilsdevelopingstrongrelationshipswiththecommunityorwithcityofficials,perhapsnotasurprisingfindinggiventheinstitutionalweaknessesofthesystem.Rather,thereisgrowthinpoliticalrelationshipsbetweenneighborhoodcouncils,thetypesofpoliticalnetworksthatcansupportmoregeneralizedpoliticalmobilization.Indeed,inseveralinstancesneighborhoodcouncilshaveexercisedtheirmuscles:inresponsetothecityburglaralarmandDWPrateincreaseproposals,andmostrecently,inoppositiontoCityCouncilplacementontheballetofPropositionRtoextendtermlimits.

Whatemerges,insum,isasystemthatwhileefficaciousinsomecommunities,needstobebroadenedtoincorporateamorediversegroupofstakeholderparticipants.TheCityneedstoprovidemuchgreaterassistancetocouncilswithoutreachandleadershipdevelopment,whiledevelopingmorestructuredarenasforengagementaroundpolicyformulationandservicedelivery.Werecommendreformsinthefollowingareas:

Participatoryrepresentation.Toincreasediversityandimprovecommunitylinkages,theCityshouldassumeresponsibilityforelectionsandgeneralizedoutreach.Itshouldsupportcouncilsinperformingtargetedcommunityorganizingtodiversifystakeholderinvolvement.Thisengagementshouldnotbelimitedtomeetingattendance;councilsshouldincreasedirectstakeholderinvolvementincommittees,andundertakevoluntaryprojectsthataretargetedtoinvolveunderrepresentedgroups.

Empowermentinnovations.Toengagecouncilsconstructivelythereisaneedtodevelopstructuredarenasforparticipationinpolicymakingandservicedelivery.Improvedcommunicationsarecritical.TheCityshouldimprovetheEarlyNotificationSystemtobesearchableandtoprovideearliernoticesocouncilshavemoretimeforconsultation.TheCityalsoshouldexpandemergentservicepartnerships,suchastheDWPandPublicWorksmemorandaofunderstanding.Itshouldcreateregionalforumsforneighborhoodcouncilstodeliberatewithcitydepartments.TheMayor’sbudgetprocessshouldbemademoreconcrete,enablingcouncilstoprovideactionableinputonspecificdecisionssuchascapitalinvestmentorcommunitydevelopment.ThesereformswillrequirechangestothecultureofgovernmentinLosAngelesandpoliticalleadershipthattakesseriouslythespecialroletheCharterestablishesforneighborhoodcouncils.

Neighborhoodcouncilcapacity.Toincreasethecapacityandefficacyofcouncils,theCityshouldinvestinsustainedleadershipdevelopmentprogramswithaparticularfocusonconflictnegotiationandcollaboration.Neighborhoodcouncilsshoulddevelopbetterdeliberativeforumsatthecommunitylevelinordertofunctionmoreasconvenersofcommunitydialogueandlessasformalisticmini-CityCouncils.Thereisalsoaneedtoemphasizecommunityorganizingaroundprojects,notsimplymeetings,andtofacilitatesharingofinformationaroundcouncilbestpractices.

OVERVIEWOFEVALUATION

I

nJuly1999,whenLosAngelesvotersapproved anewcity charter,thecityembarked on an ambitious project inparticipatorydemocracy.ThenewChartercreatedacitywidesystemofadvisoryneighborhoodcouncilsthatwouldrepresentthediversityofstakeholders,definedasthosewholive,workorownpropertyintheneighborhood.ThebroadgoalofthereformasstatedintheCharteris“topromotemorecitizenparticipationingovernmentandmakegovernmentmoreresponsivetolocalneeds.”TheLosAngelesmodelofneighborhoodcouncilsstandsoutbecauseLosAngelesisextraordinarilylargeinbothpopulationandgeographicscope,anddiverseinethnicity,classandlanguagesspoken.Whileotherlargecities,suchasNewYork,haveformsofneighborhoodgovernance,thosesystemsareappointedanddirectedcentrally.Incontrast,LosAngelessoughttocreateasystemthatwouldevolveorganically

fromthegrassroots.

TheChartercontainsseveralprovisionsexpectedtoimproveneighborhoodparticipationinthecitypolicymakingprocess.However,theCharterwasbroadinitsoutlines,leavingmuchdetailtoberesolvedbyordinanceintheplanningprocess.InturntheNeighborhoodCouncilPlanleftmanydetailsaboutdesigntothediscretionofneighborhoodcouncilorganizers,andprovidedlittleguidanceregardingtheinvolvementofcouncilsingovernance.

TheCityhasinvestedsignificantresourcesindevelopingthissystem.Itcurrentlyappropriatesabout$4.3millionperyearforexpensesincurredbyneighborhoodcouncils,includingtheupto

$50,000ayeareachneighborhoodcouncilreceives.1ThroughFY2005-2006,theCityhadappropriated$10.9millionforneighborhoodcouncils.Inaddition,theDepartmentofNeighborhoodEmpowerment,mandatedto

supportneighborhoodcouncils,hada$4.3millionoperatingbudgetinFY2005-2006.Yetthemostsignificantinvestmentsarethetimeandeffortsofthevolunteerneighborhoodcouncilparticipants—manyofwhomdevotetensofhoursaweektotheirresponsibilities.

In2006,theCharterrequiredtheappointmentofacommissiontoreviewthesystemtoexamineitsdevelopmentandassessthedegreetowhichithasachieveditsgoals.Thetimingofthisreviewispropitiousinsomewaysbutprematureinothers.Ononehand,thesystemofneighborhoodcouncilshashadtimetodevelopitscentralcomponents:TheDepartmentofNeighborhoodEmpowerment(DONE)hasoperatedforeightyears;neighborhoodcouncilshaveformedinalmosteveryneighborhoodinthecity;andsomeadministrativereforms—suchasthecreationofanEarlyNotificationSystemandtheMayor’sNeighborhoodCouncilBudgetProcess—havebeenimplemented.Itisappropriatetoassesshowwellthesecomponentsareoperating.Ontheotherhand,itisstillrelativelyearlytoreachconclusionsontheoverallimpactsofthesystem.Someneighborhoodcouncils,forexample,onlyhavebeencertifiedforafewmonths.Moreimportantly,thefruitsofdemocraticreformsmaytakealongtimetomaterialize.

EvaluativeCriteriaandMethodology

Theevaluationofaninstitutionalreformsuchasneighborhoodcouncilsisfraughtwithdifficulty.Somemembersofthepresshavedeclaredthesystemafailurehobbledbyinfightingandirrelevance.Otherstoutitasanemergingsocialmovementthateffectivelycanaddresslocalproblemsandthathasgainedtheorganizationalstrengthtobecomeaforceincitypolitics.Obviously,whereonesitshasalargeinfluenceonone’sperceptionofthesystem.

CityofLosAngelesOfficeoftheController.PerformanceandFinancialAuditoftheDepartmentofNeighborhoodEmpowerment.Nov.28,2006.

Itisimportanttounderstandtherootsofthesedisagreementsinordertoevaluatethesuccessesandshortcomingsoftheneighborhoodcouncilsysteminawaythatallowsforbroadconsensusonthedirectionthissystemshouldtake.

Thefirstissueisthatthevisionforthe

neighborhoodcouncilsystemoutlinedintheCharterisbroadandallowsvaryinginterpretationsofwhatthesystemshouldaccomplish.TheCharterstatesthatthepurposeofthesystemisto“promotemorecitizenparticipationingovernmentandmakegovernmentmoreresponsivetolocalneeds.”Neighborhoodcouncilsmustrepresentthediversityofinterestsinthecommunity,andeverypartofLosAngelesmustbelocatedwithinaneighborhoodcouncil.ArticleIoftheNeighborhoodCouncilPlan,adoptedtoimplementthesystem,broadensthegoalsstatedintheCharter.Inadditiontopromotingparticipationandmakinggovernmentmoreresponsive,thePlansupports“opportunitiestobuildpartnershipswithgovernment,”collaborationandbuildingasenseofcommunity.

ThewiderangeofpossibleinterpretationsoftheseprovisionswasevidentinfocusgroupstheNeighborhoodParticipationProjectconductedearlyintheimplementationprocess.Theneighborhoodactivistswhoparticipatedspokeabouttheimportanceofcommunitybuilding,lobbyingregardingcommunityneeds,influencingcityservicesandconnectingtothebroadercitygovernanceprocess.AnothermemberquotedformerNewYorkMayorFiorelloH.LaGuardia:“Theessenceofcitygovernmentisgoodhousekeeping.”Thispromptedanothertoquip:“Neighborhoodcouncilsshouldnotbethemaidwiththevacuumcleanerbutthemother-in-lawwiththewhitegloves.”Theconcernthatthecitywould“offload”maintenancedutieswasechoedbyaparticipantwhostated:“Wedon’twanttodotheCity’sjob…likeaself-servicegasstation.”

Somefocusgroupparticipantsfeltneighborhoodcouncilscouldinfluencebroadgovernanceprocesses,suchasredistricting,whileothersarticulatedtheimportanceofcommunitybuilding

throughsocialactivities,suchascommunityfestivals.Theparticipantstemperedtheirvisions,however,withadegreeofpragmatism.“Noonehashopeforrevolutionaryactions,”oneparticipantstated,“butthesimpleabilitytobeheard.”Anotheragreed:“Idon’tentertainanydelusionsthatneighborhoodcouncilswillsharepower—Idoentertainthevisionthatneighborhoodcouncilscanserveasforumsfordifferentintereststogettogetherandaddressissues.Thereismorevalueinthefactthatthesedifferentgroupswithseparateinterestscometogethertofocusoncommunityissues.”

BeyondthebroadandvagueChartermandatesfortheneighborhoodcouncilsystem,thebasiccharacterofthissystemiceffortatgovernancereformisinherentlydifficulttoevaluateduetotheprocessorientationofthereform,andthetypicallycontestednatureofsystemoutcomes.Becauseofthis,werelyheavilyinourevaluationontheextenttowhichthesystemseemstobedevelopingcapacityforaction.

Processorientation.Thecreationoftheneighborhoodcouncilsystemprimarilychangedtheprocessratherthensettingconcreteoutcomegoals.Evaluatingtheattainmentofprocessgoalsremainsverymuchintheeyeofbeholder.Forexample,moreparticipationgenerallyispreferredtoless,butmoreparticipationalsoincreasestheprobabilityofconflicteitheronpolicyorpersonalgrounds.Lessconsensusexistsonhowmuchconflictshouldbepromotedandtoleratedinthesystem.Tosome,longraucousmeetingsinwhichdifferentpartiesclashsignalthatnewvoiceshavejoinedthedebate,whiletoothers,suchclashespointtoasystemrunamok.

Contestedoutcomes.Theextenttowhichneighborhoodcouncilsmakesubstantiveachievementshasbeencontested.Ifnothingelse,urbanpoliticsisaboutresolvingconflictsbetweencontendinginterests.Byaddingnewvoicestheneighborhoodcouncilsystemchangedthedynamicsofthesepolicydebates,creatingnewwinnersandlosers.Naturally,winnersandlosers

willhavecontrastingopinionsonthevalueofneighborhoodcouncilsinthesedebates.

Thecreationofneighborhoodcouncilshasbeenanexerciseinbuildingcommunitycapacity.Capacityindicatesthepotentialforcommunityaction,butwhenandhowthatcapacitymaybeexercisedremainselusive.Communitycapacityoftenremainslatentuntilamobilizingissue,suchasariseincrimerateordeteriorationoftrafficmobility,promptsthecommunitytoact.

Simplylookingatneighborhoodcouncilactionstodateprovidesanincompletepictureoftheirunderlyingcapacities.Thenotionofcapacitybuildingimpliesacontinuous,dynamicprocess.Therefore,lookingatneighborhoodcouncilaccomplishmentsintherelativelybriefperiodsincecouncilinceptionprovidesonlypartialevidenceonhowwellorganizationalcapacitywillbedevelopedandmaintainedovertime.

Inthisevaluationoftheneighborhoodcouncils,westrivetoaddressthesedifficultiesheadon.Weseektoemployasbroadabaseofevidenceaspossiblebycombiningmultipledatasourcesfromeightyearsoffieldwork.Ourcriteriacanbedividedintolong-runeffectsofthesystemversustheintermediate-levelsystemreformsthatarenecessaryprerequisitesforthelong-runsuccessofthesystem.Theintermediatesystemgoalsinclude:

Astrongparticipatorycore.Councilsthatmakeupthesystemmustparticipateopenlyandeffectivelywiththeirconstituentstakeholders,whichinturnrequiresopenelectionsofthegoverningboardandbroad,representativeparticipationinneighborhoodcouncilprocesses.Deliberationrequireseffectiveoutreach.

Politicalsupportandprovisionofresources.Supportofkeypoliticalactorsbothintermsofopenaccesstopolicymakingandintheprovisionofresourcesiscrucial.TheserequisitesincludeappropriatesupportbyDONEandtheimplementationofthepoliticalinnovations

outlinedintheCharter,includingearlynotification,inputintothebudgetaryprocessandmonitoringofservices.

TheseintermediategoalsarediscussedinSectionsIIthroughIVofthisreport.Thelong-rungoalsofthesystemofneighborhoodcouncils,whichareassessedinthissectionofthereport,are:

Increasedparticipationofdiversestakeholders.ThesystemisintendedtoincreaseboththequantityandqualityofcivicparticipationinLosAngelesandtherebyfosterpartnershipsbetweentheCityandcommunitiestoaddresspressingpublicproblems.

Improvedcommunitycapacity.Byincreasingtheorganizationalcapacityoftheircommunities,neighborhoodcouncilsshouldbeabletohaveapositiveinfluenceonpolicydecisionsandtheirneighborhoods.

StrengtheningtheciviccultureofLosAngeles.Neighborhoodcouncilscaninfluencestakeholderperceptionsoftheirgovernmentandtheirroleascitizens.ResidentsofLosAngelescurrentlyhaverelativelylowlevelsoftrust,andhighlevelsofpoliticaldisaffection.Thequestioniswhethertheseattitudescanchangeasaresultofinvolvementinneighborhoodcouncils.

Thisevaluationusesamulti-methodologicalapproach,combiningdocumentaryresearchwithqualitativeandquantitativefielddata.Primarysourcesofdatacollectionincludetwosurveysofneighborhoodcouncilboardmembers;twosurveysofDepartmentofNeighborhoodEmpowermentprojectcoordinators;in-depthinterviewswithneighborhoodcouncilmembers,citycouncilstaffandcitydepartmentexecutiveliaisonstoneighborhoodcouncils;asurveyofcitydepartmentstaffwhointeractwithneighborhoodcouncils;documentarydata;threefocusgroupsinvolvingneighborhoodcouncilstakeholders;andextensivefieldresearch,includingneighborhoodcouncilmeetingattendanceandobservation.

SystemOverview

Thereformhasbeensuccessfulincreatingacitywidesystemofoperatingneighborhoodcouncils.Astheauthorselsewherediscuss,givenrelativelylimitedresourcesupportfromtheCity,thedevelopmentofthecurrentcitywidesystemmustbeattributedtothetremendouseffortsofhundredsofvolunteercommunityactivists.By2004,thesystemwaslargelyinplace,with81certifiedneighborhoodcouncilsand74electedgoverningboards.Thusthecityhashadwhatmightbeconsideredafunctioningneighborhoodcouncilsystemforapproximatelythreeyears.Therearecurrently86certifiedneighborhoodcouncilsofwhich83haveelectedboards;thenumberofcouncilsmayincreaseinthefutureassomeofthelargercouncilsarediscussingthepossibilityofdividingintosmallerentities.

Itisperhapsmoreaccuratetoconceptualizetheneighborhoodcouncilsas“communitycouncils”giventhatcouncilsrepresentonaverageresidentialareasof38,000people.Theaveragesizeofaneighborhoodcouncilboardisabout21boardmembers.Mostoftheseboardsmeetmonthly,andmanyhavecommitteesubstructuresthatconsiderpolicyissuesandforwardactionitemsforconsiderationbythegoverningboard.

Neighborhoodcouncilsarealsobeginningtocoalesceintoregionalandcitywidepolicynetworks.TheseincludetheCitywideAllianceofNeighborhoodCouncils;theLosAngelesNeighborhoodCouncilCongress;Valley,Harbor,andNortheastAlliances;andotherissue-oridentity-orientednetworks.Thesevariousneighborhoodnetworkshaveincreasedtheflowofinformationamongcommunityactivistsinthecity’smanysub-regions.

CivicParticipation

TheCharterlistspromotingcitizenparticipationingovernmentasacentralgoalofneighborhoodcouncils.Improvedparticipationcanbemeasuredinanumberofways.Neighborhoodcouncilscanincreasethenumberoftimesthatindividuals

undertakeaparticipatoryact,suchasvolunteering,votingorattendingameeting.Theyalsocanleadtohigher-qualityformsofparticipationinwhichindividualsfeelagreatersenseofempowermentorlearncivicskills.Theseeffectsoccurthroughavarietyofmeans,includingdirectinvolvementonneighborhoodcouncils,theabilityofcouncilstoinvolvecommunities,interactionwithcityofficials,andbuildingnetworksofrelationshipsthroughoutthecityamongneighborhoodactivists.

Directinvolvement.Aclearsuccessoftheneighborhoodcouncilsystemoverthelastsevenyearshasbeenthecreationofanearlycitywidesystemfromthegrassroots.Individualvolunteersfromacrossthecityhavelaboredtirelesslytoorganizeneighborhoodcouncils,undergothecertificationprocess,andmanageoperations.Theyhaveattendedcountlessmeetings,trainingsandcity-levelevents,suchastheMayor’sBudgetDayandtheCongressofNeighborhoodCouncils.Theseaccomplishmentsareallthemoreimpressivegivenlimitedcitysupportandoftenantagonisticrelationswiththecity.

Thisaccomplishmentmustbequalified,however.Itisdoubtfulthatthesecorevolunteersincludemanynewcomerstovolunteerismandcitypolitics.Inour2006surveyofneighborhoodcouncilboardmembers,almost98%saidtheyvoteeitheralwaysornearlyalways.Inaddition,neighborhoodcouncilboardmembersaresubstantiallymorelikelythanneighborhoodresidentstobewhite,wealthy,highlyeducated,andhomeowners,asdiscussedinSectionIIofthisreport.Thisisnotsurprisinggiventheenormousdedicationrequiredtobeanactiveboardmember,butitalsosuggeststhatneighborhoodcouncildecision-makingmaynotrepresentthemajorityviewofcommunitystakeholders.

Communityinvolvement.Neighborhoodcouncilshaveexertedincreasingefforttoreachouttotheircommunities.Forexample,morecouncilsreportoutreachin2006comparedto2003.Thisoutreachhasimprovedthecommunityawarenessofneighborhoodcouncils.A2003surveybythe

PublicPolicyInstituteofCaliforniafoundthatonly27%ofAngelenoshadheardofneighborhoodcouncils.Incontrast,a2007surveybytheLeaveyCenterfortheStudyofLosAngelesfoundthatnearly60%ofAngelenoswereawareoftheirneighborhoodcouncil.2Whilelevelsofawarenessareslightlylowerforgroupsthattendtoparticipatelessinpolitics—theyoung,minorities,andrenterswithlowerincomesandlesseducation—thesedifferencesarenotdisconcertinglylarge(seeFigureI-1).Despitewidelyreportedproblemsconcerningelectiondisputes,electionshavebeenrelativelysuccessful.Mostimportantly,theyattractmultipleofficeseekersleadingtoalargenumberofcontestedraces.Turnoutislowbutrespectableforadvisorybodiesinacitywithhistoricallylowvoterparticipation.

RelationshipswithLosAngelescitygovernment.Implicitinthegoalsofimprovingtheresponsivenessofcitygovernmentthroughparticipationisthenotionthatneighborhoodcouncilswouldhelpforgestrongerrelationshipsbetweencommunitystakeholdersandcityofficials.Theserelationshipsareslowindevelopingbecausethecityhasnotsystematicallyimplementedoneofthemostimportantelementsofsuccessfulneighborhoodcouncils,politicalinnovationstosupportparticipationwiththeCity(seeSectionIII).

I