现代大学英语精读4lesson3知识点

Lesson3languagepoints[Paragraph1]Moststudentsare…statistics.Meaning:Formoststudents,theybegintheirstudyofhistorywithathicktextbookinwhichthereareagreatnumberofnames,datesandstatisticsforthemtoremember.1)bywayof:a.asameansof,inordertoserveas当作，作为…之用e.g.Bywayofanexcusehesaidhewastired.Hehandedmehiscardbywayofintroductioncarryastickbywayofweaponb.through,via;bytherouteofe.g.IcamebywayofLondon.bytheway:incidentallye.g.Bytheway,haveyouseenmykeysanywhere?Fat:thickorwideUsualcollocations:afatvolume/book,afatcat,afatsalary/check,afatchance(unlikely,notunlikely)Noticethesubtledifferencesbetweenfat,plump,chubby,stoutandobesebeimmersedin:becomecompletelyinvolvedinsththatyouaredoing;tobecompletelycoveredorsubmergedinaliquidee.g.He’sreallybecomingimmersedinhiswork.immerseoneselfinsth:Heleftschoolat16andimmersedhimselfintheLabourparty.immersion:n.aseaofpeopleorthingsisaverylargenumberofthemtogether.e.g.Hiseyesranovertheseaofbottlesandglassesonthetable.beallatsea:beinastateofconfusionoruncertaintye.g.Livinginaforeigncountrycanmeanyou’realwaysatseaaboutwhat’sgoingon.atsea:underoronthesea,farawayfromlande.g.Hespentover30yearsatseaTheprofessionalhistorianissimplyonewho…Simply:a.only;nothingbute.g.Itissimplyamatteroftime.Somestudentslosemarkssimplybecausetheydon’treadthequestionproperly.It’snotsimplyaquestionofmoneyb.usedtoemphasizewhatyouaresayinge.g.Thisworkissimplynotgoodenough.Hesimplywon’tacceptthecommittee’sdecision.c.ifyousayorexplainsomethingsimply,yousayitinawaythatiseasyforpeopletounderstande.g.Trytoexpressyourselfmoresimply.Toputitsimply,thetaxcutsmeantheaveragepersonwillbeabout3%betteroff.d.ifyoulivesimply,youliveinaplainandordinaryway,withoutspendingmuchmoneye.g.Wehadtoliveverysimplyonmyfather’ssmallsalary.[Paragraph2]theircommon-sensereaction:theirresponsebasedoncommonsenseastateofaffairs:fmlasituationunsatisfactory/sad/sorrystateetcofaffairse.g.Imustsaythisisaveryunsatisfactorystateofaffairs.Thereisnotmuchwecandointhepresentstateofaffairs.presumably:whenyousaythatsthis~thecase,youmeanthatyouthinkitisverylikelytobethecase,althoughyouarenotcertain.e.g.Hehadgonetothereceptiondesk,presumablytocheckout.It’sraining,whichpresumablymeansthatyourfootballmatchwillbecancelled.He’sdeadnow,presumably?Inthecenterofthephotoisatall,well-dressedwoman-presumablythefirm’sboss.Severalofthevillagersdisappeared,presumablykilledbyenemysoldiers.Theaudiencehearsthewordsomanytimesduringtheplaythatpresumablytheylearnwhatitmeansiftheydidn’talreadyknow.【辨析】Presume,assume,suppose1)Presume:tobefairlysureofsth,esp.becauseyouhaveagoodreasontothinkso,althoughyouhavenoproof;thewordsuggeststhatwhateveristakenforgrantedisentitledtobeliefuntilitisdisproved非常肯定e.g.Thecommitteepresumedthatitsdecisionswouldbecarriedout./Ipresumeyou’vealreadyorderedlunch./Fromthewayhetalked,Ipresumedhimtobeyourboss.Manyscientistspresumedthenewdamagetotheforeststobetheresultofhigherlevelsofpollution.bepresumedinnocent/dead/responsible:认定，推定e.g.Thedefendantispresumedinnocentuntilprovedguilty.The20soldiersaboardaremissingandpresumeddead.【Othersensesofpresume:fmltobehavewithoutrespectorpolitenessbydoingsth.thatyouhavenorighttodo冒昧地做，擅自做，放肆):e.g.Iwouldneverpresumetotellyouwhattodo./Theyareresentfulthatoutsiderspresumetomeddleintheiraffairs./Iwouldn’tpresumetoquestionyourjudgment.[transitiveusuallyinpresenttense]fml.(ofanidea,theoryorplan)toacceptsth.asbeingtrueandbasesomethingelseonit=presuppose:e.g.TheAncientHistorycoursepresumessomeknowledgeofGreek./Yourargumentpresumesthateveryoneunderstandstheissue.presumeon/uponsomebody’sfriendship/generosityetc:tounfairlyasksb.formorethanyoushould,becausetheyareyourfriend,aregenerousetc滥用，过多指望e.g.Itwouldbepresumingonhisgenerositytoaskhimformoney./Don’tpresumeuponhistolerance.】2)Assume:tothinksth.istrue,althoughyouhavenoproof;thewordindicatesarbitraryordeliberateacceptanceofsth.notprovenordemonstratede.g.Hehadassumedthatthefamilywouldwelcomehisreturn./Ididn’tseeyourcar,soIassumedyou’dgoneout./Ithinkwecansafelyassume(=itisalmostcertain)thatinterestrateswillgoupagainsoon./I’vealwaysassumedhertobeAmerican.【review:assumeresponsibility/arole,assumeanairofindifference】letus/let’sassume(that):usedwhenthinkingaboutapossibleeventorsituationanditspossibleresults)＝suppose猜想某事及其结果e.g.Letusassumeforamomentthatwecouldindeedfireher.Shouldwe?WhenitgottomidnightandPaulwasstillnotback,Ibegantoassumetheworst(=thinkthattheworstpossiblethinghadhappened).3)Suppose:[transitiveverbnotinprogressive]tothinkthatsth.isprobablytrue,esp.becauseofsomeinformationyouhave—usethisinwrittenorformalcontexts=presumee.g.Wehavenoreasontosupposethatthegirlisdead.TherearemanyreasonstosupposethatShakespearewasfamiliarwiththestoriesofmedievalItaly.Thereweremanymoredeathsthanwasfirstsupposed.Whatmakesyousupposewe’regoingtosellthehouse?suppose/supposing(that):spokenusedwhentalkingaboutapossibleconditionorsituation,andthenimaginingtheresult假定…的话，结果会怎样e.g.Look,supposeyoulostyourjobtomorrow,whatwouldyoudo?Supposingitreallyisafire!besupposedtodo/besth.a)usedtosaywhatsb.shouldorshouldnotdo,esp.becauseofrulesorwhatsb.inauthorityhassaid某人（不）应该做某事e.g.We’resupposedtocheckoutofthehotelby11o’clock.I’mnotsupposedtotellanyone.b)usedtosaywhatwasorisexpectedorintendedtohappen,esp.whenitdidnothappen预期或打算某事发生e.g.Noonewassupposedtoknowaboutit.ThemeetingwassupposedtotakeplaceonTuesday,butwe’vehadtopostponeit.c)usedtosaythatsth.isbelievedtobetruebymanypeople,althoughitmightnotbetrueoryoumightdisagree（很多人相信某事，但不一定是真的或说话人有异议）据说e.g.Thecastleissupposedtobehaunted.据说MrsCarverissupposedtohavealotofmoney.5.contendinghistorians:historianswhoarefightingordebatingcontend:a.vi.tocompeteagainstsomeoneinordertogainsomethinge.g.Threearmedgroupsarecontendingforpower/firstplace/firstprize.Inevitably,fightsbreakoutbetweenthemembersofcontendinggroups.b.vt.toargueorstatethatsomethingistruee.g.Someastronomerscontendthattheuniversemaybeyoungerthanpreviouslythought.Thepolicecontendedthatthemanwasintheareaatthetimeoftherobbery.c.contendwithsomething:tohavetodealwithsomethingdifficultorunpleasante.g.Therescueteamalsohadbadweatherconditionstocontendwith.Iknowthecharmsofmyrivalaretoopowerfulformetocontendwith.Moreorless:almost,toanundetermineddegree;approximatelye.g.Thisproblemismoreorlesssettled./Theymoreorlessagreetoreopentheirdiscussionabouttheborderdispute./They’vesettledheremoreorlesspermanently.6.perspective:a.[C]awayofthinkingaboutsth,esp.onewhichisinfluencedbythetypeofpersonyouareorbyyourexperiencese.g.Hisfather’sdeathgavehimawholenewperspectiveonlife.Thenoveliswrittenfromachild’sperspective/pointofview.Thebookdealswithawoman’sperspectiveonrevolutionarychange.Youcancallitbraveorfoolish,dependingonyourperspective.fromafeminist/Christian/global/historical/financialperspective:e.g.Wehavetolookateverythingfromaninternationalperspective.Theproblemneedstobelookedatfromahistoricalperspective.b.[U]asensiblewayofjudgingandcomparingsituationssothatyoudonotimaginethatsth.ismoreseriousthanitreallyis合理观察e.g.Ithinkshe’slostallsenseofperspectiveintherushtogetwhatshewants.get/keepsomethinginperspective(=judgetheimportanceofsomethingcorrectly)e.g.Wemustgettheprobleminperspective;it’snotreallythatserious.Synonyms:angle,viewpoint,pointofviewe.g.Thearticlegivesthereaderafreshangleonpopculture.We’reapproachingtheissuefrommanydifferentangles.Fromanecologicalviewpoint,themotorwayhasbeenadisaster.Tryandthinkofitfromthechild’sviewpoint.Fromaneconomicpointofview,thenewdevelopmentwillbenefitthetowngreatly.Frommypointofview,thereisnowaytheycanwin.acut-and-driedmatter:aroutine;anordinarymattercutanddried:certaintohappeninaparticularwaybecauseithasalreadybeenplannedordetermined,andnothingcanbedonetochangeit;clearlydecidedorsettled事先安排好的；常规的，例行的e.g.Unfortunately,thingscannotbeascutanddriedasmanypeoplewouldlike.Myfuturewascutanddried.Iwouldjoinmyfather’sfirm,andtakeitoverwhenheretired.Wemadethearrangementsweeksago.It’sallcutanddried.cutacross:goacrosssthinordertoarrivesomewheremorequickly;ifanissueorproblemcutsacrossthedivisionbetweentwoormoregroupsofpeople,itaffectsormatterstopeopleinallthegroups.超越；不顾；抄近路e.g.Schoolcrimeandviolencecutsacrossurban,ruralandsuburbanareas.cutback:reducesomethingsuchasexpenditure;(cutbackonsth)削减，缩减e.g.Thegovernmenthascutbackondefensespending.cutdown:(cutdownonsth)consumeordolessofsth;cutthroughatree’strunktomakeitfalltotheground砍倒；削减，减少e.g.Hecutdownoncoffeeandcigarettes,andateabalanceddiet.Iamtryingtocutmydrinkingdown.We’llhavetocutdownonourspending.cutin:(cutinonsb)interruptthemwhentheyarespeaking插嘴，打断；超车抢档cutoff：切掉，中断通话；打断某人；停止供应；使隔绝cutoffsb’shead/becutoffinthemiddleorourtelephoneconversation/cutoffthesupplyofelectricity/Thevillagewascutofffromtherestoftheworld.historicalvshistoric:historical:of,orrelatedtohistorye.g.Itisimportanttolookatthenovelinitshistoricalcontext./WasKingArthurarealhistoricalfigure?historic:havingconsiderableimportanceorinfluenceinhistory;veryold(ofplaceorbuilding)ahistoricmeetingofworldleaders/‘Itisahistoricmoment,’hetoldjournalists.therestorationofhistoricbuildings/ancienthistoricsites/ourhistoricmonuments[Paragraph3]Thispositionishardlysatisfying.Meaning:Thisisnotahappysituation.Studentsexpecttobegivenclear-cutanswers,eitheryesorno.Butnowtheyhavetoshoparoundfortheproperanswer.Theanswerbecomesapersonchoice.Thismakesthemfeelveryuncomfortable.1)position:a.situationorstate;statuse.g.tobeinanawkward/difficult/embarrassingposition:You’reputtingmeinratheradifficultposition.I’mnotsurewhatIwoulddoifIwereinyourposition.Sheisintheenviablepositionofhavingthreejoboffers.b.pointofview;opiniontotakeaposition(onsth):tohaveadefiniteattitudeoropinione.g.Youmusttakeapositiononthisissue./What’stheparty’spositionontaxreform?inapositiontodosth:beabletodoitinnopositiontodosth:tobeunabletodoit2)satisfying:ifajob,activity,orexperienceissatisfying,itmakesyoufeelsatisfied,becauseyouenjoyitandtheresultsareoftenverygood;rewarding;fulfillinge.g.There’ssomethingverysatisfyingaboutbakingyourownbread.Workingwithchildrenwithspecialneedscanbeasatisfyingandrewardingexperience.Satisfactory:ifsthissatisfactory,itreachestheexpectedstandardbutisnotbetterthanit;acceptable,goode.g.Youwon’tgetpaidunlessyourworkissatisfactory.Hegotsatisfactorygradesandwasofferedaplaceatuniversity.anarrangementsatisfactorytobothsides/Noneofthesolutionswasentirelysatisfactory./Ouraimistoachieveasatisfactoryoutcomeforeveryone.1)cannothelpbutfeel:cannothelpfeeling;cannotbutfeel;canonlyfeelsb.can’thelp(doing)sth=sb.can’thelpbutdosth.:usedtosaythatsb.isunabletochangetheirbehaviourorfeelings,ortopreventthemselvesfromdoingsth.e.gLeecouldnothelpbutagreewithher.Ican’thelpfeelingthattherehasbeenamistake.Icouldn’thelpthinkingaboutthepast.Can’thelpit:Shecouldn’thelpitifshewasbeingirrational.‘Stopbitingyournails.’‘Ican’thelpit.’2)diametricallyopposed:absolutelyorirreconcilablyopposed;completelydifferent;polesapart[paragraph5]Initsbroadestsense,historydenotesthewholeofthehumanpast.inabroad/narrow/generalsense:inthebroad/narrow/generalmeaningofthewordReview:thereisnosensein(doing)sth.spokenseesensee.g.Iwishthepoliticianswouldseesenseandstopthewar.talk/monsensemakesensee.g.Readthisandtellmeifitmakessense.Itmakessensetosavemoneywhileyoucan.Whydidshedoathinglikethat?Itdoesn’tseemtomakesense.make(some)senseofsth:e.g.Canyoumakeanysenseofthisarticle?inasense/inonesense/insomesensese.g.Whathesaysisrightinasense.Thehotelwasinnosensecomfortable.Tetoyoursenses:e.g.Onedayhe’llcometohissensesandseewhatafoolhe’sbeenSeeifyoucanbringhertohersenses.beoutofyoursensese.g.Areyoucompletelyoutofyoursenses?totakeleaveofyoursensesdenote:toreferto;meanthatawordhasaveryexactsenseTheEnglishword“family”usedtodenoteallthepeopleinthehouse,includingservants.Connote:tomakeyouthinkoffeelings,ideasthatarenotitsactualmeaninge.g.Theword“plump”connotescheerfulness.Suitsdonotexactlyconnotecreativityandrisk-taking.Finally,historymaybedefinedasthatwhichhistorianswriteaboutthepast.Finally,historymaybedescribedaswhathistorianshavewrittenaboutourpast.Inotherwords,historyishumanpastthroughtheeyesofhistorians.Historyrequiresthecombinationoftwofactors:theobjectivefactsandthesubjectiveselection,arrangement,andinterpretationofthehistorian.Thisiswhyhistoriansoftendisagree.Anditisinthissensethatweoftensaythateveryonetendstowritehisownhistory.theycannotknoweverythingforthesimplereasonthatnoteveryevent,everyhappening,wasfullyandcompletelyrecorded.Manyeventsandhappeningswerenotrecordedorfullyandcompletelyrecordedbecausepeopleatthetimedidnothavethetime,energy,interestorthenecessarymeans.Oftentheywerenotrecordedbecausetheywereconsideredtootrivial,tooembarrassing,ortoodangeroustobeknown.Manyrecordshavealsobeendistorted,lost,ordestroyedinfire,flood,warorthroughdecay.Thatiswhyhistorianshavesuchaformidabletask.【辨析】event,happening,incident,occurrenceHappening:sththathappens,esp.sththatisstrange,unusuale.g.Therehavebeenreportsofstrange/unusual/mysterioushappeningsinthetown.Occurrence:impliesahappeningwithoutintent,volitionorplan;esp.tosaywhethersthhappensoftenornotoften.e.g.acommon/daily/frequentoccurrenceEarthquakesareanunusualoccurrenceinEnglandbutarenottotallyunknown.Event:usuallyimpliesanoccurrenceofsomeimportanceandfrequentlyonehavingevidentantecedente.g.MeetingMaowasaneventwhichchangedmylife.TheeventsleadinguptotheoutbreakofWWIIPoliceareattemptingtoreconstructthesequenceofeventsonthenightofthekilling.Incident:suggestanoccurrenceofbriefdurationorrelativelyslightimportance;anevent,especiallyonethatisunusual,important,orviolente.g.oneoftheminorincidentsofthewarYoucouldhavecausedamajordiplomaticincident.Aspokesmansaiditwasanisolatedincident.Manyshootingincidentsgounreported.Theplanlandedwithoutincident.Thereforethehistoriancanonlyapproximatehistoryatbest.Noonecaneverclaimtohaveconcludedthequest.Therefore,thebestthehistoriancandoistogetasnearaspossibletothehistoricaltruth.Butnoonecaneverboastthatheorshehascompletedthissearch.Itgoesonforever.1)approximate:vt.&vi.tocomecloseto(aparticularnumber);tobesimilartosth.butnotexactlythesamee.g.Thecrowdapproximated10,000.Worseningsocialconditionsapproximatetothoseoftheearlythirties.你对发生的事情的描述大致接近事实，但是还有几处小的错误。Youraccountofwhathappenedapproximatesthetruth,butthereareseveralsmallerrors.Yourstoryonlyapproximatestotherealfacts.approximate:adj.notexact;roughe.g.theapproximatecostofrepairsapproximateideaofsth.approximately:adv.e.g.Theplanewillbelandinginapproximately20minutes.Howmuchdothinkitwillcost,approximately?approximationn.Icanonlygiveyouanapproximationofthecost.2)atbest:usedtoemphasizethatsth.isnotverygood,pleasant,honestetcevenifyouconsideritinthebestpossiblewaye.g.Thecampaignwasatbestonlypartiallysuccessful.Thetechniqueisatbestineffectiveandatworstdangerous.Thegovernment’sresponseseemstohavebeenatbestconfusedandatworsedishonest.Hischancesofvictoryare,atbest,uncertain.[Review]atone’sbest:performingaswelloreffectivelyasyouareabletoe.g.Atherbest,she’sareallystylishplayer.Hewasneverathisbestearlyinthemorning.atthebestoftimestothebestofsb’sability:usedforsayingthatsb.doessthaswellastheycantothebestofmyknowledge/belief:usedforsayingthatyouthinkyourstatementistrue,becauseitisbasedonwhatyouknoworbelieve,butyouarenotcompletelysure3)quest:litalongdifficultsearche.g.thequestforhappiness/truthinquestof:tryingtofindorgetsth.[Paragraph6]Butthisdoesn’tsayenough.Meaning:butthisdoesn’texplaineverything./Butthisisstillaninadequateanswer./Butthisisnotafullandcompleteexplanation.say:vt.ifsthsayssthaboutaperson,situation,orthing,itrevealssthabouttheme.g.Ithinkthatsaysalotabouthowwellsheisplaying.apaintingthatsaysnothing/aglancethatsaysmuch他的眼神比话语更意味深长Theyoungman’seyessaidmorethanwords.Say比如说：Let’ssaythatheislying.Ifsthgoeswithoutsaying,itisobviousorisboundtobetrue.Usenottosaytoaddastrongerormoreextremedescriptionthantheoneyouhavejustused.即使不说是，虽不能说e.g.Hislanguageisirreverent,nottosayblasphemous.Whathesaidsoundedalittleodd,nottosayoffensive.Tosaynothingof,usedwhenyoumentionanadditionalthingwhichgivesevenmorestrengthtothepointyouaremaking.更不用说，何况e.g.Unemploymentleadstoasenseofuselessness,tosaynothingoffinancialproblems.Threepeoplewerebadlyhurt,tosaynothingofthebuilding.Nottomention:(withoutmentioning)更不必说，除…之外（还）e.g.WewereservedFrenchchampagne,nottosaytheusualcocktails.Davidishandsomeandsmart,nottosaybeingagoodathlete.Youcansaythatagaintoexpressstrongagreementwithwhatsbhasjustsaid(infml)Yousaidit!A:Thatisagoodshow.B:Yousaidit!Thatistosay:Youdon’tsay!e.g.Jimmy’sawell-knownpainter.---Youdon’tsay!deem:tothinkofsth.inaparticularwayorashavingaparticularquality;consider(deemismoresubjunctivethanconsideremphasizingjudgmentratherthananalyticalthought.)e.g.Theydeemedthathewasnolongercapableofmanagingthebusiness.Theyweredeemedtobeillegalimmigrants.Shedeemedthewholeidea(tobe)awasteoftime.Theyweretoldto_________________采取任何他们认为必要的行动。takewhateveractiontheydeemednecessary.piecetogether:a.tousealltheinformationyouhaveaboutasituationinordertodiscoverthetruthaboutite.g.Policearetryingtopiecetogetherhismovementsbeforethemurder.Herearlylifehasbeenpiecedtogetherfromseveraldifferentsources.b.toputalltheseparatepartsofanobjectintothecorrectorderorpositione.g.Heslowlypiecedtogetherthetornfragmentsofaletter.[Paragraph7]Historiansareabletoselectandcreateevidencebyusingsometheoryofhumanmotivationsandbehavior.Createevidence:tofindevidencebasedonreasoningoranalysisrathertanmaterialrecordssuchasdocumentsorartifactstheoryofhumanmotivationandbehavior:Whomakeshistory?What’sthedrivingforcesofhistory?Whatarethemostimportanthumanactivitiesthatdeterminethedirectionofhistoricaldevelopment?Whatarethebasichumanneedsthatcausepeopletobehavethewaytheydo?requiringverylittlesophisticationandsubtlety:Meaning:requiringnospecialtrainingorprofoundknowledgeortheabilitytounderstandverycomplexissuesandsubtledistinctionssophistication:n.havingthequalityofintelligentandwellinformed,andshowsanabilitytounderstandcomplicatedmatters老练，富于经验；有教养 例：Theunionnegotiatorsshowedhighlevelofsophistication. 工会谈判代表表现出丰富的经验。subtlety:n.thequalityofbeingverycleverinnoticingandunderstandingthings细心，敏锐 例：Thejobwillrequiresubtletyandsensitivity. 干这项工作心要细，反应要灵敏。relevantto:toberelatedtothematterathand;directlyconnectedwiththesubjectbeingdiscussedorconsidered;tothepoint(synonym:pertinentantonym:irrelevant)e.g.Thispointisrelevant,butIdon’tthinkitisveryimportant.Ifoundafewbookswhichmightberelevanttoyourpaper.你有什么与该职位相关的经历吗？Whatexperiencedoyouhavethatisrelevanttothisposition?Pertinent(to):directlyconcernedwithasubjectandimportantwhenconsideringite.g.Heaskedmealotofpertinentquestions.Relevance/relevancyn.related:adj.connected;connectedbykinship,marriage,orcommonorigine.g.Applicantsmustholdadegreeinaccountingorarelatedfield.Hesufferswithmemorylossrelatedtohisdisease.Educationlevelsarestronglyrelatedtoincome.peoplesufferingfromtobacco-related/HIV/Aids-relatedillnessestheproblemofdrugabuseandotherrelatedissuesAreyoutworelated?Thechoiceastowhichfacttouse….admittedly…asto:a.concerning;withregardtoe.g.Frankwasveryuncertainastowhetheritwastherightjobforhim.advice/choice/decision/question/problem/issue/debateastoHekepthisrivalsguessingastohisrealintentions.b.fmlusedwhenyouarestartingtotalkaboutsth.newthatisconnectedwithwhatyouweretalkingaboutbeforee.g.Astoourfutureplans,IthinkIneedonlysaythatthecompanyintendstoexpandatasteadyrate.2)admittedly:usedwhenyouareadmittingthatsth.istruee.g.Thetechniqueispainful,admittedly,butitbenefitsthepatientgreatly.Heisadmittedlyanartist.公认的艺术家。Admittedly,thesubjectisdifficult,butmostofthepupilscanmasterit.诚然Admittedly,hedidn’tknowthatatthetime.3)nonetheless:fmlnevertheless;howevere.g.Theregionwasextremelybeautiful.NonethelessIcouldnotimaginespendingtherestofmylifethere.WagnerwasaNazisupporter.Nevertheless,heisanimportantpartofmusicalhistory.Itwouldgosomethinglikethis…Thiscrudetheoryassumesthatnationalleadersareallresponsible,rationalpeoplewhowillnotmakewhimsicaldecisionsorallowtrivialthingstoinfluencetheirbigdecisions.Theirdecisionsarealwaysmadeaftercarefuldeliberationandalwaysinthebestinterestsofthepeople.(Thereareampleexampleswhichprovethatthistheoryisnotalwaysreliable.Nationalleaderscanbeirresponsibleandirrational.)belligerent:a.veryunfriendlyandwantingtoargueorfight;aggressive;bellicosee.g.abelligerentattitudeWhenpoliceofficersquestionedhim,hebecamebelligerentandtriedtohitoneofthem.Harrisisabelligerentmanwithanexplosivetemper.b.fmlabelligerentcountryisfightingawaragainstanothercountrybelligerence,belligerencyn.[U][Paragraph8]understudy:beingstudiedMoreexamples:underdiscussion,underconstruction,underrepair,underreview,underobservation,underattack,underconsideratione.g.Allthesepossibilitiesareunderconsideration.Thestretchofthehighwayisstillunderrepair.Propagandamachine:anorganizedgroupofpeoplewho,onbehalfoftheBritishgovernment,workedtoinfluencethepublicopinionintheU.S.andwinAmericanpeopleovertotheBritishcauseatwork:a)doingyourjoboraparticularactivitye.g.Hespentmostofhistimewatchingthefishermenatwork.Sheiscurrentlyatworkonabookaboutwomeninspace.b)havingaparticularinfluenceoreffecte.g.Volcanoesdisplaysomeofnature’smostpowerfulforcesatwork.Itisimportanttounderstandthepowerfuleconomicandsocialforcesatworkbehindourownactions.cause:n.a.[C]anorganization,belief,oraimthatagroupofpeoplesupportorfightfore.g.Ourcauseisjust,andwearepreparedtogiveourlivesforit.herlifelongdevotiontothecauseofwomen’srights从上世纪七十年代起他就开始倡导再生能源事业。Hehaschampionedthecauseofrenewableenergysincethemid-1970s.Support/espouse/promote/furtherthecauseofb.[C]anevent,thingorpersonthatmakessth.happene.g.anessayonthecauseoftheFirstWorldWarTherootcauseofthecurrentenergycrisisisthatwesimplyusetoomuchenergy.乳腺癌是美国四十岁以上女性的头号杀手。BreastcanceristheleadingcauseofdeathforAmericanwomenintheirforties.c.[U]afactthatmakesitrightorreasonableforyoutofeelorbehaveinaparticularway;reasone.g.Thereisnocauseforalarm.Thepatient'sconditionisgivingcauseforconcern.Thepresentpoliticalclimategiveslittlecauseforoptimism.Hisfatherhasgoodcausetobeproudofhim.Manypeopleareworriedabouttheeconomy,andwithgoodcause.Henolongerlovedher,andwithjustcause,becauseshehadbetrayedhim.Thechildren’sbehaviorisgivinguscauseforconcern.Course:Doacourse/takeacoursein/onasubjectasamatterofcourse/routine:ifsth.isdoneasamatterofcourseorroutine,itisthecorrectandusualthingtodoinaparticularsituation例行的e.g.Wewillcontactyourformeremployerasamatterofcourse.Asamatterofcourse,thejudgetoldthejurytolistenequallytobothsides.three-coursemealcourseofaction/course:anoraseriesofactionstakentodealwithaparticularsituatione.g.Iagreedthatthiswastheonlysensiblecourseofaction.Whatcourseofactiondoyourecommend?Hedidn’twanttosta