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Chapter2PersonalityandLearningCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectivesDefinepersonalityanddiscussitsgeneralroleininfluencingorganizationalbehaviour.Describethedispositional,situational,andinteractionistapproachtoorganizationalbehaviour.DiscusstheFive-FactorModelofpersonality.Discusstheconsequencesoflocusofcontrol,self-monitoring,andself-esteem.Chapter2Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectives(continued)5. Discusspositiveandnegativeaffectivity,proactivepersonality,generalself-efficacy,andcoreself-evaluations.Definelearninganddescribewhatislearnedinorganizations.Explainoperantlearningtheoryanddifferentiatebetweenpositiveandnegativereinforcements.Chapter2Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LearningObjectives(continued)8. Explainwhentouseimmediateversusdelayedreinforcementandwhentousecontinuousversuspartialreinforcement.Distinguishbetweenextinctionandpunishmentandexplainhowtousepunishmenteffectively.Explainsocialcognitivetheoryanddiscussobservationallearning,self-efficacy,andself-regulation.Describeorganizationallearningpractices.Chapter2Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhatIsPersonality?

Therelativelystablesetofpsychologicalcharacteristicsthatinfluencesthewayanindividualinteractswithhisorherenvironmentandhowheorshefeels,thinks,andbehaves.Dimensionsandtraitsthataredeterminedbygeneticpredispositionandone’slong-termlearninghistory.Peoplehaveavarietyofpersonalitycharacteristics.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PersonalityandOrganizationalBehaviourPersonalityhasalonghistoryinorganizationalbehaviour.Theroleofpersonalityinorganizationalbehaviourhasoftenbeendebatedinwhatisknownasthe“person-situationdebate”Thishasledtothreeapproaches:ThedispositionalapproachThesituationalapproachTheinteractionistapproachCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheDispositionalApproachFocusesonindividualdispositionsandpersonality.Individualspossessstabletraitsorcharacteristicsthatinfluencetheirattitudesandbehaviours.Individualsarepredisposedtobehaveincertainways.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheSituationalApproachCharacteristicsoftheorganizationalsettingsuchasrewardsandpunishmentinfluencepeople’sfeelings,attitudesandbehaviour.Manystudieshaveshownthatsituationalfactorssuchasthecharacteristicsofworktaskspredictjobsatisfaction.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheInteractionistApproachOrganizationalbehaviourisafunctionofbothdispositionsandthesituation.Topredictandunderstandorganizationalbehaviour,weneedtoknowsomethingaboutanindividual’spersonalityandtheworksetting.Thisisthemostwidelyacceptedapproachtoorganizationalbehaviour.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PersonalityandtheSituationSituationscanbedescribedasbeingeither“weak”or“strong”.Inweaksituations,rolesarelooselydefined,therearefewrulesandweakreinforcementandpunishmentcontingencies.Personalityhasthestrongesteffectinweaksituations.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PersonalityandtheSituation(continued)Instrongsituations,theroles,rules,andcontingenciesaremoredefined.Personalityhaslessofanimpactinstrongsituations.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ImplicationsoftheInteractionistApproachSomepersonalitycharacteristicsareusefulincertainorganizationalsituations.Thereisnoonebestpersonality.Appreciatetheadvantagesofemployeediversity.Theimportanceoffit-puttingtherightpersonintherightjob,group,ororganization.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheFive-FactorModelofPersonalityFivebasicbutgeneraldimensionsthatdescribepersonality:ExtraversionEmotionalstability/neuroticismAgreeablenessConscientiousnessOpennesstoexperienceCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheFive-FactorModelofPersonality(continued)Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExtraversionandOBImportantforjobsthatrequireinterpersonalinteractionandwherebeingsociable,assertive,energetic,andambitiousisimportantforsuccess.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Emotionalstability/neuroticismandOBPersonshighonemotionalstabilitywillhavemoreeffectiveinteractionswithco-workersandcustomersastheytendtobemoreclamandsecure.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.AgreeablenessandOBContributestojobperformanceinjobsthatrequireinteractionandinvolvehelping,cooperating,andnurturingothersaswellasinjobsthatinvolveteamworkandcooperation.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ConscientiousnessandOBImportantforjobperformanceonmostjobsgiventhetendencytowardshardworkandachievement.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.OpennesstoExperienceandOBImportantforjobsthatinvolvelearningandcreativitygiventhetendencytobeintellectual,curious,andimaginative.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheFive-FactorModelofPersonality:ResearchEachofthe“BigFive”dimensionsisrelatedtojobperformance.Bestpredictorsofjobperformancedependsontheoccupation.Conscientiousnessisthestrongestpredictorofoveralljobperformanceacrossalloccupations.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheFive-FactorModelofPersonality:ResearchThe“BigFive”arerelatedtoworkmotivation,jobsatisfaction,andlifesatisfaction.The“BigFive”predictjobsearchoutcomesandcareersuccess.Theeffectsofpersonalityoncareersuccessarerelativelyenduring.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LocusofControlAsetofbeliefsaboutwhetherone’sbehaviouriscontrolledmainlybyinternalorexternalfactors.Internalsbelievethattheopportunitytocontroltheirownbehaviourresideswithinthemselves.Externalsbelievethatexternalforcesdeterminetheirbehaviour.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TheInternal/ExternalLocusofControlContinuumCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.LocusofControl:ResearchInternalsaremoresatisfiedwiththeirjobs,earnmoremoney,andachievehigherorganizationalpositions.Internalsperceivelessstress,copewithstressbetter,andengageinmorecarefulcareerplanning.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-MonitoringTheextenttowhichpeopleobserveandregulatehowtheyappearandbehaveinsocialsettingsandrelationships.Highself-monitorstakegreatcaretoobserveandcontroltheimagesthattheyproject.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-Monitoring(continued)Highself-monitorsshowconcernforsociallyappropriatebehaviourandsocialcues,andtheyregulatetheirbehaviourandself-presentationaccordingtothesecues.Highself-monitorsgravitatetojobsthatrequirerole-playingandtheuseoftheirself-presentationskills.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-Monitoring:ResearchHighself-monitorsaremoreinvolvedintheirjobs,performbetter,andaremorelikelytoemergeasleaders.Highself-monitorsarelikelytoexperiencemorerolestressandshowlesscommitmenttotheirorganization.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-Monitoring:ResearchHighself-monitorsaremorelikelytochangeemployersandlocationsandtoreceivemorepromotions.Theydonotfeelcomfortableinambiguoussocialsettingsinwhichitishardtodeterminewhatbehavioursaresociallyappropriate.Dealingwithunfamiliarculturesmightprovokestress.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-EsteemThedegreetowhichapersonhasapositiveself-evaluation.Peoplewithhighself-esteemhavefavourableself-images.Peoplewithlowself-esteemhaveunfavourableself-images.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-EsteemandBehaviouralPlasticityTheoryPeoplewithlowself-esteemtendtobemoresusceptibletoexternalandsocialinfluencesthanthosewhohavehighself-esteem.Eventsandpeopleinorganizationshavemoreimpactonthebeliefsandactionsofemployeeswithlowself-esteem.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-Esteem:ResearchEmployeeswithlowself-esteemreactbadlytonegativefeedback––itlowerssubsequentperformance.Peoplewithhighself-esteemmakemorefulfillingcareerdecisionsandhavehigherjobsatisfactionandjobperformance.Peoplewithhighself-esteemaremoreresilienttothestrainsofeverydayworklife.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.RecentDevelopmentsinPersonalityandOrganizationalBehaviourPositiveaffectivityNegativeaffectivityProactivepersonalityGeneralself-efficacyCoreself-evaluationsCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PositiveandNegativeAffectivityPeoplewhoarehighonpositiveaffectivity(PA)experiencepositiveemotionsandmoodsandviewtheworldinapositivelight.Peoplewhoarehighonnegativeaffectivity(NA)experiencenegativeemotionsandmoodsandviewtheworldinanegativelight.PAandNAareemotionaldispositionsthatpredictpeople’sgeneralemotionaltendencies.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PositiveandNegativeAffectivity:ResearchPeoplewithhigherPAreporthigherjobsatisfaction;theyhavehigherjobperformanceandaremorecreativeatwork.PeoplewithhigherNAreportlowerjobsatisfaction;theyhavelowerjobperformance.PeoplewithhigherNAexperiencemorestressfulconditionsatworkandreporthigherlevelsofworkplacestressandstrain.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PositiveandNegativeAffectivity:ResearchNAhasalsobeenfoundtoberelatedtomorecounterproductiveworkbehaviours,withdrawalbehaviours,andoccupationalinjury.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ProactivePersonalityArelativelystablepersonaldispositionthatreflectsatendencytobehaveproactively.Proactivebehaviourinvolvestakinginitiativeacrossarangeofsituationstoeffectpositivechangeinone’senvironment.Proactiveindividualssearchforandidentifyopportunities,showinitiative,takeaction,andpersevereuntiltheybringaboutmeaningfulchange.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ProactivePersonality:ResearchProactivepersonalityisrelatedto:JobperformanceToleranceforstressLeadershipeffectivenessParticipationinorganizationalinitiativesWorkteamperformanceEntrepreneurshipCareersuccessCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.GeneralSelf-EfficacyAgeneraltraitthatreferstoanindividual’sbeliefinhisorherabilitytoperformsuccessfullyinavarietyofchallengingsituations.Generalself-efficacy(GSE)isamotivationaltraitratherthananaffectivetrait.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.GeneralSelf-Efficacy:ResearchIndividualswithhigherGSEarebetterabletoadapttonovel,uncertain,andadversesituations.EmployeeswithhigherGSEhavehigherjobsatisfactionandjobperformance.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.CoreSelf-EvaluationsAbroadpersonalityconceptthatconsistsofspecifictraitsthatreflecttheevaluationspeopleholdaboutthemselvesandtheirself-worth,competence,andcapability.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.CoreSelf-Evaluations:TraitsSelf-esteemGeneralself-efficacyLocusofcontrolNeuroticism(emotionalstability)Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.CoreSelf-Evaluations:ResearchPeoplewithmorepositiveCSEshavehigherjobsatisfaction,lifeandcareersatisfaction,andjobperformance.IndividualswithhigherCSEperceivefewerstressorsandexperiencelessstressandconflictatwork.EmployeeswithmorepositiveCSEsexperiencetheirjobasmoreintrinsicallysatisfyingandtheyarelikelytohavemorecomplexjobs.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhatisLearning?Arelativelypermanentchangeinbehaviourpotentialasaresultofpracticeorexperience.Thepracticeorexperiencethatpromptslearningstemsfromanenvironmentthatprovidesfeedbackconcerningtheconsequencesofbehaviour.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhatDoEmployeesLearn?Practicalskills:Job-specificskills,knowledge,technicalcompetence.Intrapersonalskills:Problemsolving,criticalthinking,alternativeworkprocesses,risktaking.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.WhatDoEmployeesLearn?(continued)Interpersonalskills:Interactiveskillssuchascommunicating,teamwork,conflictresolution.Culturalawareness:Thesocialnormsoforganizations,companygoals,businessoperations,expectations,andpriorities.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.OperantLearningTheoryThesubjectlearnstooperateontheenvironmenttoachievecertainconsequences.Operantlylearnedbehaviouriscontrolledbytheconsequencesthatfollowit.Itistheconnectionbetweenthebehaviourandtheconsequencethatislearned.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.IncreasingtheProbabilityofBehaviourOneofthemostimportantconsequencesthatinfluencesbehaviourisreinforcement.Reinforcementistheprocessbywhichstimulistrengthenbehaviours.Areinforcerisastimulusthatfollowssomebehaviourandincreasesormaintainstheprobabilityofthatbehaviour.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PositiveReinforcementTheapplicationoradditionofastimulusthatincreasesormaintainstheprobabilityofsomebehaviour.Thestimulusisthepositivereinforcer.Thereinforcerisdependentorcontingentontheoccurrenceofsomedesiredbehaviour.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.NegativeReinforcementTheremovalofastimulusfromasituationthatincreasesormaintainstheprobabilityofsomebehaviour.Negativereinforcementoccurswhenaresponsepreventssomeeventorstimulusfromoccurring.Theremovedorpreventedstimulusisanegativereinforcer.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.OrganizationalErrorsInvolvingReinforcementRewardsfailtoserveasreinforcerswhentheyarenotmadecontingentonsomespecificdesiredbehaviour.Organizationsoftenfailtoappreciateindividualdifferencesinpreferencesforreinforcers.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.OrganizationalErrorsInvolvingReinforcement(continued)Managersoftenneglectimportantsourcesofreinforcementsuchasthoseadministeredbyco-workersorintrinsictothejob.Twoimportantsourcesofreinforcementthatmanagersoftenignoreareperformancefeedbackandsocialrecognition.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerformanceFeedbackPerformancefeedbackinvolvesprovidingquantitativeorqualitativeinformationonpastperformanceforthepurposeofchangingormaintainingperformance.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PerformanceFeedback(continued)Performancefeedbackismosteffectivewhenitis:ConveyedinapositivemannerDeliveredimmediatelyafterobservingperformanceRepresentedvisually(graphorchartform)SpecifictothebehaviourthatisbeingtargetedforfeedbackCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.SocialRecognitionSocialrecognitioninvolvesinformalacknowledgement,attention,praise,approval,orgenuineappreciationforworkwelldonefromoneindividualtoanother.Whensocialrecognitionismadecontingentonemployeebehaviouritcanbeaneffectivemeansforperformanceimprovement.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ReinforcementStrategiesForfastacquisitionofsomeresponse,continuousandimmediatereinforcementshouldbeused.Behaviourtendstobepersistentwhenitislearnedunderconditionsofpartialanddelayedreinforcement.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ReinforcementStrategies(continued)Managershavetotailorreinforcementstrategiestotheneedsofthesituationandoftenmustaltertheirstrategiesovertimetoachieveeffectivelearningandmaintenanceofbehaviour.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.SummaryofReinforcementStrategiesandtheirEffectsCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ReducingtheProbabilityofBehaviourSometimeslearnedbehavioursaredetrimentaltotheoperationofanorganizationandtheyneedtobereducedoreliminated.Twostrategiesthatcanreducetheprobabilityoflearnedbehaviour:ExtinctionPunishmentCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ExtinctionThegradualdissipationofbehaviourfollowingtheterminationofreinforcement.Ifthebehaviourisnotreinforced,itwillgraduallydissipateorbeextinguished.Extinctionworksbestwhencoupledwiththereinforcementofsomedesiredsubstitutebehaviour.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.PunishmentTheapplicationofanaversivestimulusfollowingunwantedbehaviourtodecreasetheprobabilityofthatbehaviour.Anastystimulusisappliedaftersomeundesirablebehaviourinordertodecreasetheprobabilityofthatbehaviour.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.SummaryofLearningEffectsCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Punishmenthassomeuniquecharacteristicsthatoftenlimititseffectivenessineliminatingunwantedbehaviour.Itdoesnotdemonstratewhichbehavioursshouldreplacethepunishedresponse.Punishmentindicatesonlywhatisnotappropriate.ProblemsUsingPunishmentCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ProblemsUsingPunishment(continued)Punishmentonlytemporarilysuppressestheunwantedbehaviour.Punishmentcanprovokeastrongemotionalreactionfromthepunishedindividual.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.UsingPunishmentEffectivelyProvideanacceptablealternativeresponseforthepunishedresponse.Limittheemotionsinvolvedinpunishment.Makesurethechosenpunishmentistrulyaversive.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.UsingPunishmentEffectively(continued)Punishimmediatelyorreinstatethecircumstancessurroundingtheproblembehaviouratamoreappropriatetime.Donotrewardunwantedbehavioursbeforeorafterpunishment.Donotinadvertentlypunishdesirablebehaviour.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.SocialCognitiveTheoryEmphasizestheroleofcognitiveprocessesinregulatingpeople’’sbehaviour.Peoplelearnbyobservingthebehaviourofothersandcanregulatetheirownbehaviourbythinkingabouttheconsequencesoftheiractions,settinggoals,monitoringperformance,andrewardingthemselves.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.SocialCognitiveTheory(continued)Humanbehaviourcanbestbeexplainedthroughasystemoftriadicreciprocalcausationinwhichpersonalfactorsandenvironmentalfactorsworktogetherandinteracttoinfluencepeople’sbehaviour.People’sbehaviouralsoinfluencespersonalfactorsandtheenvironment.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ComponentsofSocialCognitiveTheoryObservationallearningSelf-efficacySelf-regulationCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ObservationalLearningTheprocessofimitatingthebehaviourofothers:ExaminingthebehaviourofothersSeeingtheconsequencestheyexperienceThinkingaboutwhatmighthappenifweactthesamewayImitatingthebehaviourifweexpectfavourableconsequencesCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.ObservationalLearning(continued)Involvesself-reinforcement.Attractive,credible,competent,high-statuspeoplearemostlikelytobeimitated.Itisimportantthatthemodel’’sbehaviourresultinpositiveconsequencesandthatitisvividandmemorable.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-EfficacyBeliefspeoplehaveabouttheirabilitytosuccessfullyperformaspecifictask.Itisacognitivebeliefthatcanbechangedandmodifiedinresponsetodifferentsourcesofinformation.Self-efficacyisinfluencedbyfoursourcesofinformation.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.DeterminantsofSelf-EfficacyCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-Efficacy(continued)Self-efficacyinfluencestheactivitiespeoplechoosetoperform,theamountofeffortandpersistencedevotedtoatask,affectiveandstressreactions,andjobperformance.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-RegulationTheuseoflearningprinciplestoregulateone’sownbehaviour.Akeypartoftheprocessispeople’’spursuitofself-setgoalsthatguidebehaviour.Discrepancyreductionanddiscrepancyproductionlieattheheartoftheself-regulatoryprocess.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-Regulation(continued)Self-regulationinvolvesthefollowingactivities:Collectself-observationdataObservemodelsSetgoalsRehearseReinforceoneselfCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.Self-Regulation(continued)Self-regulationcanimprovelearningandresultinachangeinbehaviour.Self-regulationtraininghasbeenshowntoimproveworkattendanceandsalesperformance.Self-regulationhasbeenshowntochangeavarietyofbehavioursanditisaneffectivemethodoftraining.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.OrganizationalLearningPracticesOrganizationallearningpracticesinclude:OrganizationalbehaviourmodificationEmployeerecognitionprogramsTrainingprogramsCareerdevelopmentCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.OrganizationalBehaviourModification(O.B.Mod.)Thesystematicuseoflearningprinciplestoinfluenceorganizationalbehaviour.O.B.Mod.hasbeenshowntoimprovesafeworkingbehaviour,workattendance,andtaskperformance.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.OrganizationalBehaviourModification(continued)Theeffectsontaskperformancearestrongerinmanufacturingthaninserviceorganizations.Money,feedback,andsocialrecognitionhavebeenusedaseffectiveformsofpositivereinforcement.Moneyhasstrongereffects,however,theuseofallthreetogetherhasthestrongesteffectontaskperformance.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.EmployeeRecognitionProgramsFormalorganizationalprogramsthatpubliclyrecognizeandrewardemployeesforspecificbehaviours.ManycompaniesinCanadahavesomeformofemployeerecognitionprogram.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TypesofRecognitionProgramsCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.EmployeeRecognitionPrograms(continued)Tobeeffective,formalemployeerecognitionprogramsmustspecify:HowapersonwillberecognizedThetypeofbehaviourbeingencouragedThemannerofthepublicacknowledgementAtokenoriconoftheeventfortherecipientCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.EmployeeRecognitionPrograms(continued)Employeerecognitionprogramshavebeenfoundtoberelatedtohigherjobsatisfactionandperformance,andlowerabsenteeismandturnover.Anincreasingnumberoforganizationshavebeguntoimplementpeerrecognitionprograms.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TrainingProgramsPlannedorganizationalactivitiesthataredesignedtofacilitateknowledgeandskillacquisitioninordertochangebehaviourandimproveperformance.Effectivetrainingprogramsstrengthenself-efficacyandincludepositivereinforcement,feedback,modelling,andself-regulation.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.TrainingPrograms(continued)Oneofthemostwidelyusedandeffectivemethodsoftrainingisbehaviourmodellingtraining(BMT)whichisbasedonsocialcognitivetheory.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.BehaviourModellingTraining(BMT)BMTinvolvesthefollowingsteps:Describetotraineesasetofwell-definedbehaviours(skills)tobelearnedProvideamodelormodelsdisplayingtheeffectiveuseofthosebehavioursProvideopportunitiesfortraineestopracticeusingthosebehavioursCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.BehaviourModellingTraining(BMT)(continued)BMTinvolvesthefollowingsteps:ProvidefeedbackandsocialreinforcementtotraineesfollowingpracticeTakestepstomaximizethetransferofthosebehaviourstothejobCopyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.BehaviourModellingTraining(BMT)(continued)BMThasapositiveeffectonlearning,skills,andjobbehaviour.Theeffectsonbehaviouraregreatestwhentraineesareinstructedtosetgoalsandwhenrewardsandsanctionsareusedinthetrainees’’workenvironment.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.CareerDevelopmentAnongoingprocessinwhichindividualsprogressthroughaseriesofstagesthatconsistofauniquesetofissues,themes,andtasks.Itinvolvesacareerplanningandacareermanagementcomponent.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.CareerPlanningInvolvestheassessmentofone’’sinterests,skills,andabilities,andthedevelopmentofcareergoalsandplans.Copyright©2011PearsonCanadaInc.CareerManagementInvolvestakingthenecessarystepsthatarerequiredtoachieveone’sgoalsandplans.Thisofteninvolvesspecialassignments