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《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示
第一章语言的性质
语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性);语言的功能(寒暄、
指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为);语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化
说)等。
第二章语言学
语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观);语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与
历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为);普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、
句法、语义);;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、
神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学)等。
第三章语音学
发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音
学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学
音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词
重音、句子重音、音高和语调)等。
第五章词法学
词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生);词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,
词缀和词干)等。
第六章词汇学
词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。
第七章句法
句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格);
一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。
第八章语义学
语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用);里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反
义、下义);句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化
语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化);
第十章语言、思维与文化
语言与文化的定义:萨丕尔-沃夫假说:语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。
第十章语用学语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行
为和言后行为);合作原则;
Questions&AnswersonKeyPoints
ofLinguistics
1.1.Whatislanguage?
“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocal
symbolsusedforhumancommunication.It
isasystem,sincelinguisticelements
arearrangedsystematically,rather
thanrandomly.Arbitrary,inthesense
thatthereisusuallynointrinsic
connectionbetweenawork(like
"book")andtheobjectitrefersto.
Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythe
factthatdifferentlanguageshave
different“books":"book"in
English,“livre“inFrench,in
Japanese,inChinese,“check”in
Korean.Itissymbolic,becausewords
areassociatedwithobjects,actions,
ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.
Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocal
formstosymbolizewhattheywishto
referto.Itisvocal,becausesoundor
speechistheprimarymediumforall
humanlanguages,developedor"new”.
Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthe
spokenforms.Thefactthatsmall
childrenlearnandcanonlylearnto
speak(andlisten)beforetheywrite
(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguage
isprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.
Theterm“human“inthedefinitionis
meanttospecifythatlanguageishuman
specific.
1.2.Whataredesignfeaturesof
language?
uDesignfeaturesvhererefertothe
definingpropertiesofhumanlanguage
thattellthedifferencebetweenhuman
languageandanysystemofanimal
communication.Theyarearbitrariness,
duality,productivity,displacement,
culturaltransmissionand
interchangeability
1.3.Whatisarbitrariness?
Byarbitrarinessv,wemeanthereis
nologicalconnectionbetweenmeanings
andsounds(seeI.1).Adogmightbea
pigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupof
personshaduseditforapig.Language
isthereforelargelyarbitrary.But
languageisnotabsolutelyseemtobe
somesound-meaningassociation,ifwe
thinkofechowords,like“bang”,
“crash”,“roar”,whichare
motivatedinacertainsense.Secondly,
somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobe
oneword)arenotentirelyarbitrary
either.“Type"and“write”are
opaqueorunmotivatedwords,while
utype-writer??islessso,ormore
transparentormotivatedthanthewords
thatmakeit.Sowecansay
“arbitrariness“isamatterofdegree.
1.4.Whatisduality?
Linguistsrefer“duality”(of
structure)tothefactthatinall
languagessofarinvestigated,onefinds
twolevelsofstructureorpatterning.
Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageis
analyzedintermsofcombinationsof
meaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,
wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,
itisseenasasequenceofsegments
whichlackanymeaninginthemselves,
butwhichcombinetoformunitsof
meaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.
(p.6),languageisasystemoftwosets
ofstructures,oneofsoundsandthe
otherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfor
theworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumber
ofsemanticunits(words),andthese
unitsofmeaningcanbearrangedand
rearrangedintoaninfinitenumberof
sentences(notethatwehave
dictionariesofwords,butnodictionary
ofsentences!).Dualitymakesit
possibleforapersontotalkabout
anythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimal
communicationsystemenjoysthis
duality,orevenapproachesthishonour.
1.5.Whatisproductivity?
Productivityreferstotheabilityto
theabilitytoconstructandunderstand
anindefinitelylargenumberof
sentencesinone'snativelanguage,
includingthosethathasneverheard
before,butthatareappropriatetothe
speakingsituation.Noonehaseversaid
orheard“Ared-eyedelephantis
dancingonthesmallhotelbedwithan
Africangibbon”,buthecansayitwhen
necessary,andhecanunderstanditin
rightregister.Differentfromartistic
creativity,though,productivitynever
goesoutsidethelanguage,thusalso
called“rule-boundcreativity^(by
N.Chomsky).
1.6.Whatisdisplacement?
“Displacement”,asoneofthedesign
featuresofthehumanlanguage,refers
tothefactthatonecantalkabout
thingsthatarenotpresent,aseasily
ashedoesthingspresent.Inother
words,onecanrefertorealandunreal
things,thingsofthepast,ofthe
present,ofthefuture.Languageitself
canbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,for
example,iscryingtoawoman,about
something,itmightbesomethingthat
hadoccurred,orsomethingthatis
occurring,orsomethingthatisto
occur.Whenadogisbarking,however,
youcandecideitisbarkingfor
somethingoratsomeonethatexistsnow
andthere.Itcouldn?tbebow-wowing
sorrowfullyfordomelostloveorabone
tobelost.Thebee'ssystem,
nonetheless,hasasmallshareof
“displacement”,butitisan
unspeakabletinyshare.
1.7.Whatisculturaltransmission?
Thismeansthatlanguageisnot
biologicallytransmittedfrom
generationtogeneration,butthatthe
detailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbe
learnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistrue
thatthecapacityforlanguageinhuman
beings(N.Chomskycalleditlanguage
acquisitiondevice??,orLAD)hasa
geneticbasis,buttheparticular
languageapersonlearnstospeakisa
culturaloneotherthanageneticone
likethedog'sbarkingsystem.Ifa
humanbeingisbroughtupinisolation
hecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolf
Childrearedbythepackofwolvesturned
outtospeakthewolf,sroaring
“tongue“whenhewassaved.Helearned
thereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,
theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.
1.8.Whatisinterchangeability?
(1)Interchangeabilitymeansthatany
humanbeingcanbebothaproducerand
areceiverofmessages.Wecansay,and
onotheroccasionscanreceiveand
understand,forexample,“Pleasedo
somethingtomakemehappy."Though
somepeople(includingme)suggestthat
thereissexdifferentiationinthe
actuallanguageuse,inotherwords,men
andwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yet
inprinciplethereisnosound,orword
orsentencethatamancanutteranda
womancannot,orviceversa.Ontheother
hand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhile
theotherpersonisthelistenerandas
theturnmovesontothelistener,hecan
bethespeakerandthefirstspeakeris
tolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakes
socialcommunicationpossibleand
acceptable.
(2)Somemalebirds,however,uttersome
callswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot?),
andcertainkindsoffishhavesimilar
hapsmentionable.Whenadogbarks,all
theneighbouringdogsbark.Thenpeople
aroundcanhardlytellwhichdog(dogs)
is(areO"speaking”andwhich
listening.
1.9.Whydolinguistssaylanguageis
humanspecific?
Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix
“designfeaturesrwhichanimal
communicationsystemsdonothave,at
leastnotinthetruesenseofthem(see
I.2~8).Let?sborrowC.F.Hocket?s
Chartthatcompareshumanlanguagewith
someanimals,systems,fromWang
Gang(1998,p.8).
Secondly,linguistshavedonealot
tryingtoteachanimalssuchas
chimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguage
buthaveachievednothinginspiring.
Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbrought
uplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceand
AlanGardner.Shewastaught“American
signLanguage”,andlearnedalittle
thatmadetheteachershappybutdidmot
makethelinguisticscirclehappy,for
fewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.
Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamong
animalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,
notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaught
tolotoso(seethe“WolfChild”in
1.7)
1.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave?
Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:
phatic,directive,Informative,
interrogative,expressive,evocative
andperformative.AccordingtoWangGang
(1988,p.11),languagehasthreemain
functions:atoolofcommunication,a
toolwherebypeoplelearnaboutthe
world,andatoolbywhichpeoplelearn
abouttheworld,andatoolbywhich
peoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,
representativeoftheLondonschool,
recognizesthree“Macro—Functions”:
ideational,interpersonaland
textual(see!.11-17;seeHUZhuanglinet
al.,pplO-13,pp394-396).
1.IlWhatisthephaticfunction?
The“phaticfunction“refersto
languagebeingusedforsettingupa
certainatmosphereormaintaining
socialcontacts(ratherthanfor
exchanginginformationorideas).
Greetings,farewells,andcommentson
theweatherinEnglishandonclothing
inChineseallservethisfunction.Much
ofthephaticlanguage(e.g."Howare
you?”"Fine,thanks.")isinsincere
iftakenliterally,butitisimportant.
Ifyoudon,tsay“Hello”toafriend
youmeet,orifyoudon'tanswerhis
“Hi”,youruinyourfriendship.
1.12.Whatisthedirectivefunction?
The“directivefunction“meansthat
languagemaybeusedtogetthehearer
todosomething.Mostimperative
sentencesperformthisfunction,e.g.,
“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”
Othersyntacticstructuresorsentences
ofothersortscan,accordingto
J.AustinandJ.Searle's"indrect
speechacttheory”(seeHuZhuanglinet
al.,pp271-278)atleast,servethe
purposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.,“IfI
wereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothe
bottomofmyears!”
1.13.Whatistheinformativefunction?
Languageservesan^informational
function??whenusedtotellsomething,
characterizedbytheuseofdeclarative
sentences.Informativestatementsare
oftenlabelledastrue(truth)or
false(falsehood).Accordingto
P.Grice's^Cooperative
Principlev(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,
pp282-283),oneoughtnottoviolatethe
“MaximofQualityv,whenheis
informingatall.
1.14.Whatistheinterrogative
function?
Whenlanguageisusedtoobtain
information,itservesan
interrogativefunction".This
includesallquestionsthatexpect
replies,statements,imperativesetc.,
accordingtothe“indirectspeechact
theory??,mayhavethisfunctionas
well,e.g.,"I'dliketoknowyou
better."Thismaybringforthalotof
personalinformation.Notethat
rhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,
sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnot
thereaders/listener?sanswer.
1.15.Whatistheexpressivefunction?
Theuexpressivefunction“istheuse
oflanguagetorevealsomethingabout
thefeelingsorattitudesofthe
speaker.Subconsciousemotional
ejaculationsaregoodexamples,like
“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”Sentences
like"I'msorryaboutthedelay”can
serveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughina
subtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfor
theinformativefunctiontopass
judgementonthetruthorfalsehoodof
statements,languageusedforthe
expressivefunctionevaluates,
appraisesorassertsthespeaker?sown
attitudes.
1.16.Whatistheevocativefunction?
The“evocativefunction??istheuseof
languagetocreatecertainfeelingsin
thehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,to
amuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,
worryorplease.Jokes(notpractical
jokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseor
entertainthelistener;advertisingto
urgecustomerstopurchasecertain
commodities;propagandatoinfluence
publicopinion.Obviously,the
expressiveandtheevocativefunctions
oftengotogether,i.e.,youmay
express,forexample,yourpersonal
feelingsaboutapoliticalissuebutend
upbyevokingthesamefeelingin,or
imposingiton,yourlistener.That's
alsothecasewiththeotherwayround.
1.17.Whatistheperformativefunction?
Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”
orperformactions.Oncertainoccasions
theutteranceitselfasanactionismore
importantthanwhatwordsorsounds
constitutetheutteredsentence.When
askedifathirdYangtzebridgeoughtto
bebuiltinWuhan,themayormaysay
“OK”,whichmeansmorethanspeech,
andmorethananaveragesocial
individualmaydofortheconstruction.
Thejudge,simprisonmentsentence,the
president?swarorindependence
declaration,etc.,areperformativesas
well(seeJ.Austin'sspeechActTheory,
HuZhuanglin,ecal.,pp271-278).
1.18.Whatislinguistics?
“Linguistics“isthescientificstudy
oflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustone
languageofanyonesociety,butthe
languageofallhumanbeings.A
linguist,though,doesnothavetoknow
andusealargenumberoflanguages,but
toinvestigatehoweachlanguageis
constructed.Heisalsoconcernedwith
howalanguagevariesfromdialectto
dialect,fromclasstoclass,howit
changesfromcenturytocentury,how
childrenacquiretheirmothertongue,
andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshould
learnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,
linguisticsstudiesthegeneral
principleswhereuponallhuman
languagesareconstructedandoperateas
systemsofcommunicationintheir
societiesorcommunities(seeHu
Zhuanglinetal.,pp20-22)
1.19.Whatmakeslinguisticsascience?
Sincelinguisticsisthescientific
studyoflanguage,itoughttobase
itselfuponthesystematic,
investigationoflanguagedatawhich
aimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureof
languageanditsunderlyingsystem.To
makesenseofthedata,alinguist
usuallyhasconceivedsomehypotheses
aboutthelanguagestructure,tobe
checkedagainsttheobservedor
observablefacts.Inordertomakehis
analysisscientific,alinguistis
usuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:
exhaustiveness,consistency,and
objectivity.Exhaustivenessmeanshe
shouldgatherallthematerialsrelevant
tothestudyandgivethemanadequate
explanation,inspiteofthe
complicatedness.Heistoleaveno
linguistic“stone”unturned.
Consistencymeansthereshouldbeno
contradictionbetweendifferentparts
ofthetotalstatement.Economymeansa
linguistshouldpursuebrevityinthe
analysiswhenitispossible.
Objectivityimpliesthatsincesome
peoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy,
alinguistshouldbe(orsoundatleast)
objective,matter-of-face,faithfulto
reality,sothathisworkconstitutes
partofthelinguisticsresearch.
1.20.Whatarethemajorbranchesof
linguistics?
Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoften
calledgenerallinguistics(e.g.Hu
Zhuanglinetal.,1988;Wang
Gang,1988).Butalinguistsometimesis
abletodealwithonlyoneaspectof
languageatatime,thustheariseof
variousbranches:
phonetics,phonology,morphology,
syntax,semantics,sociolinguistics,
appliedlinguistics,pragmatics,
psycholinguistics,lexicology,
lexicography,etymology,etc.
1.21.Whataresynchronicanddiachronic
studies?
Thedescriptionofalanguageatsome
pointoftime(asifitstopped
developing)isasynchronystudy
(synchrony).Thedescriptionofa
languageasitchangesthroughtimeis
adiachronicstudy(diachronic).An
essayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”,for
example,maybesynchronic,ifthe
authordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,
anditmayalsobediachronicifhe
claimstocoveralargerangeorperiod
oftimewhereinTHEhasundergone
tremendousalteration(seeHuZhuanglin
etal.,pp25-27).
1.22.Whatisspeechandwhatiswriting?
(1)Nooneneedstherepetitionofthe
generalprincipleoflinguistic
analysis,namely,theprimacyofspeech
overwriting.Speechisprimary,because
itexistedlonglongbeforewriting
systemscameintobeing.Genetically
childrenlearntospeakbeforelearning
towrite.Secondly,writtenformsjust
representinthiswayorthatthespeech
sounds:individualsounds,asin
EnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.
(2)Incontrasttospeech,spokenform
oflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,
giveslanguagenewscopeandusethat
speechdoesnothave.Firstly,messages
canbecarriedthroughspacesothat
peoplecanwritetoeachother.
Secondly,messagescanbecarried
throughtimethereby,sothatpeopleof
ourtimecanbecarriedthroughtime
thereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecan
readBeowulf,SamuelJohnson,andEdgar
A.Poe.Thirdly,oralmessagesare
readilysubjecttodistortion,either
intentionalorunintentional(causing
misunderstandingormalentendu),while
writtenmessagesallowandencourage
repeatedunalterablereading.
(3)Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisis
focusedonspeech,differentfrom
grammariansofthelastcenturyand
theretofore.
1.23.Whatarethedifferencesbetween
thedescriptiveandtheprescriptive
approaches?
Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”if
itonlydescribesandanalysesthefacts
oflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifit
triestolaydownrulesfor“correct”
languagebehavior.Linguisticstudies
beforethiscenturywerelargely
prescriptivebecausemanyearly
grammarswerelargelyprescriptive
becausemanyearlygrammarswerebased
on“high”(literaryorreligious)
writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsis
mostlydescriptive,however.It(the
latter)believesthatwhateveroccursin
naturalspeech(hesitation,incomplete
utterance,misunderstanding,etc.)
shouldbedescribedintheanalysis,and
notbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,
corrupt,orlousy.These,withchanges
invocabularyandstructures,needtobe
explainedalso.
1.24.Whatisthedifferencebetween
langueandparole?
F.deSaussurerefers“langue”tothe
abstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyall
themembersofaspeechcommunityand
refers“parole“totheactualor
actualizedlanguage,ortherealization
oflangue.Langueisabstract,parole
specifictothespeakingsituation;
languenotactuallyspokenbyan
individual,parolealwaysanaturally
occurringevent;languerelatively
stableandsystematic,paroleisamass
ofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitablefor
systematicinvestigation.Whata
linguistoughttodo,accordingto
Saussure,istoabstractlanguefrom
instancesofparole,i.e.todiscover
theregularitiesgoverningall
instancesofparoleandmakethanthe
subjectoflinguistics.The
langue-paroledistinctionisofgreat
importance,whichcastsgreatinfluence
onlaterlinguists.
1.25.Whatisthedifferencebetween
competenceandperformance?
(1)AccordingtoN.Chomsky,
“competence”istheideallanguage
user?sknowledgeoftherulesofhis
language,and“performance“isthe
actualrealizationofthisknowledgein
utterances.Theformerenablesaspeaker
toproduceandunderstandanindefinite
numberofsentencesandtorecognize
grammaticalmistakesandambiguities.A
speaker?scompetenceisstablewhile
hisperformanceisofteninfluencedby
psychologicalandsocialfactors.Soa
speaker?sperformancedoesnotalways
matchorequalhissupposedcompetence.
(2)Chomskybelievesthatlinguists
oughttostudycompetence,ratherthan
performance.Inotherwords,theyshould
discoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsof
hisnativelanguage.
(3)Chomsky?scompetence-performance
distinctionisnotexactlythesameas,
thoughsimilarto,F.deSaussure?s
langue-paroledistinction.Langueisa
socialproduct,andasetofconventions
foracommunity,whilecompetenceis
deemedasapropertyofthemindofeach
individual.Sussurelooksatlanguage
morefromasociologicalor
sociolinguisticpointofviewthanN.
Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhis
issuespsychologicallyor
psycholinguistically.
1.26.Whatislinguisticpotential?What
isactuallinguisticbehaviour?
Thesetwoterms,orthe
potential-behaviordistinction,were
madebyM.A.K.Hallidayinthe1960s,
fromafunctionalpointofview.There
isawiderangeofthingsaspeakercan
doinhisculture,andsimilarlythere
aremanythingshecansay,forexample,
tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whathe
actuallysays(i.e.his“actual
linguisticbehavior??)onacertain
occasiontoacertainpersoniswhathe
haschosenfrommanypossibleinjustice
items,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid
(linguisticpotential).
1.27.Inwhatwaydolanguage,competence
andlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhat
waydotheydiffer?Andtheir
counterparts?
Langue,competenceandlinguistic
potentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,
buttheyareinnatelydifferent(see
1.25).Langueisasocialproduct,and
asetofspeakingconventions;
competenceisapropertyorattributeof
eachidealspeaker?smind;linguistic
potentialisallthelinguisticcorpus
orrepertoireavailablefromwhichthe
speakerchoosesitemsfortheactual
utterancesituation.Inotherwords,
langueisinvisiblebutreliable
abstractsystem.Competencemeans
“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentiala
setofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or
^performingactions”.Theyare
similarinthattheyallrefertothe
constantunderlyingtheutterancesthat
constitutewhatSaussure,Chomskyand
Hallidayrespectivelycalledparole,
performanceandactuallinguistic
behavior.Paole,performanceandactual
linguisticbehaviorenjoymore
similaritiesthandifferences.
1.28.Whatisphonetics?
“Phonetics”isthesciencewhich
studiesthecharacteristicsofhuman
sound-making,especiallythosesounds
usedi
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