2023年胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记老师画的重点自己的

Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1Whystudylanguage?Languageisveryessentialtohumanbeings.Inlanguagetherearemanythingsweshouldknow.Forfurtherunderstanding,weneedtostudylanguagescientifically.2Whatislanguage?DesignfeaturesoflanguageThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication...3.1Arbitrariness.3.2Duality.3.3CreativityCreativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences..3.4DisplacementOriginoflanguageAuditoryphonetics-thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.2SpeechorgansSpeechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.2.3Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscriptionSegmentsanddivergencesAstherearemoresoundsinEnglishthanitsletters,eachlettermustrepresentmorethanonesound.PhonetictranscriptionInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA):thesystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistsoflettersanddiacritics.SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,somearespecialsymbols.2ConsonantsThecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:1.theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract(mannerofarticulation);2.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(placeofarticulation).2.4.3Mannersofarticulation8.Velar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.2.4.5TheconsonantsofEnglishReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestigevarietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoftenbeenpopularlyreferredtoas“BBCEnglish”oraOxfordEnglish”becauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.AchartofEnglishconsonantsMannerofarticulationPlaceofarticulationBilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPost-alveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateInmanycasestherearetwosoundsthatsharethesameplaceandmannerofarticulation.Thesepairsofconsonantsaredistinguishedbyvoicing,theoneappearingontheleftisvoicelessandtheoneontherightisvoiced.Therefore,theconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingway:[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricative[m]bilabialnasal[n]alveolarnasal[1]alveolarlateral[j]palatalapproximant[h]glottalfricative[r]alveolarapproximant2.5Vowels5.1ThecriteriaofvoweldescriptionThepartofthetonguethatisraised-front,center,orback.Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate.Normally,threeorfourdegreesarerecognized:high,mid(oftendividedintomid-highandmid-low)andlow.Thekindofopeningmadeatthelips-variousdegreesofliproundingorspreading.Thepositionofthesoftpalate-raisedfororalvowels,andloweredforvowelswhichhavebeennasalized.Thetheoryofcardinalvowels[Icywarmteadoesn'tquiteunderstandthistheory.]Cardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendingtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.Byconvention,theeightprimarycardinalvowelsarenumberedfromonetoeightasfollows:CV1[],CV2[],CV3[],CV4[],CV5[],CV6[],CV7[],CV8[].Asetofsecondarycardinalvowelsisobtainedbyreversingthelip-roundingforagiveposition:CV9-CV16.[IamsorryIcannottypeoutmanyofthese.Ifyouwanttoknow,youmayconsultthetextbookp.47.-icywarmtea]VowelglidesPure(monophthong)vowels:vowelswhichareproducedwithoutanynoticeablechangeinvowelquality.Vowelglides:Vowelswherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Diphthong:Avowelwhichisusuallyconsideredasonedistinctivevowelofaparticularlanguagebutreallyinvolvestwovowels,withonevowelglidingtotheother.ThevowelsofRP[]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[]highbacklaxroundedvowel[]centrallaxunroundedvowel[]lowbacklaxroundedvowel6CoarticulationandphonetictranscriptionCoarticulationCoarticulation:Thesimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationoftwosuccessivephonologicalunits.Anticipatorycoarticulation:Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamp,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Perseverativecoarticulation:Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,asinthecaseofmap,itisperseverativecoarticulation.Nasalization:Changeorprocessbywhichvowelsorconsonantsbecomenasal.Diacritics:Anymarkinwritingadditionaltoaletterorotherbasicelements.BroadandnarrowtranscriptionsTheuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscriptioniscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Theformerwasmeanttoindicateonlythesesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguagewhilethelatterwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventheminutestshadesofpronunciation.2.7PhonologicalanalysisPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.Ontheotherhand,phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Thereisafairdegreeofoverlapinwhatconcernsthetwosubjects,sosometimesitishardtodrawtheboundarybetweenthem.Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhilephonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Thatistosay,phonologyisconcernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhumanlanguages,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.2.8PhonemesandallophonesMinimalpairsMinimalpairsaretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E.g.theEnglishwordstieanddieareminimalpairsastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/t/and/d/.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsofalanguage,aphonologistcanfindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.ThephonemetheoryAllophonesAphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeiscalleditsallophones.E.g.inEnglish,whenthephoneme//occursatthebeginningofthewordlikepeak//,itissaidwithalittlepuffofair,itisaspirated.Butwhen//occursinthewordlikespeak//,itissaidwithoutthepuffoftheair,itisunaspirated.Boththeaspirated[]inpeakandtheunaspirated[=]inspeakhavethesamephonemicfunction,i.e.theyarebothheardandidentifiedas//andnotas//;theyarebothallophonesofthephoneme//.PhonologicalprocessesAssimilationAssimilation:Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Regressiveassimilation:Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Progressiveassimilation:Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,wecallitprogressiveassimilation.Devoicing:Aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.DevoicingofvoicedconsonantsoftenoccursinEnglishwhentheyareattheendofaword.PhonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrulesThechangesinassimilation,nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallphonologicalprocessesinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Ineachprocessthechangeisconditionedortriggeredbyafollowingsoundor,inthecaseofprogressiveassimilation,aprecedingsound.Consequently,wecansaythatanyphonologicalprocessmusthavethreeaspectstoit:asetofsoundstoundergotheprocess;asetofsoundsproducedbytheprocess;asetofsituationsinwhichtheprocessapplies.Wecanrepresenttheprocessbymansofanarrow:voicedfricativefvoiceless/voiceless.Thisisaphonologicalrule.Theslash(/)specifiestheenvironmentinwhichthechangetakesplace.Thebar(calledthefocusbar)indicatesthepositionofthetargetsegment.Sotherulereads:avoicedfricativeistransformedintothecorrespondingvoicelesssoundwhenitappearsbeforeavoicelesssound.Ruleordering[Nomuchtosay,soomitted-icywarmtea]DistinctivefeaturesDistinctivefeature:Aparticularcharacteristicwhichdistinguishesonedistinctivesoundunitofalanguagefromanotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.Binaryfeature:Apropertyofaphonemeorawordwhichcanbeusedtodescribethephonemeorword.Abinaryfeatureiseitherpresentorabsent.Binaryfeaturesarealsousedtodescribethesemanticpropertiesofwords.SyllablesSuprasegmentalfeatures:Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllables,stress,tone,andintonation.Syllable:Aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlongerthanonesoundandsmallerthanawholeword.Opensyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinavowel.Closedsyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinaconsonant.Maximalonsetprinciple:Theprinciplewhichstatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.E.g.Thecorrectsyllabificationofthewordcountryshouldbe//•Itshouldn,tbe//or//accordingtothisprinciple.Chapter3Lexicon3.1Whatisword?1.Whatisalexeme?Alexemeisthesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersimilarunits.Itisanabstractunit.ItcanoccurinmanydifferentformsThebow-wowtheoryInprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.Thepooh-poohtheoryInthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpains,angerandjoywhichgraduallydevelopedintolanguage.The"yo-he-ho”theoryAsprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.1.5FunctionsoflanguageAsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:Referential:toconveymessageandinformation;Poetic:toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;Emotive:toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;Conative:topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;Phatic:toestablishcommunionwithothers;Metalingual:toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.Whatiscontextualism?inactualspokenorwrittensentences,andisregardedasthesamelexemeevenwheninflected.E.g.theword“write”isthelexemeofawrite,writes,wrote,writingandwritten.”Whatisamorpheme?Amorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.E.g.theword“boxes“hastwomorphemes:"box"and"es,"neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisshapesifwedon'twanttosacrificeitsmeaning.Whatisanallomorph?Anallomorphisthealternateshapesofthesamemorpheme.E.g.thevariantsoftheplurality“-s"makestheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,ox-oxen,tooth-teeth,etc.Whatisaword?Awordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitsthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutteranceinspeechorwriting.1.1Threesensesof“word”AphysicallydefinableunitThecommonfactorunderlyingasetofformsAgrammaticalunit3.1.2IdentificationofwordsStabilityWordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure,i.e.theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordhavelittlepotentialforrearrangement,comparedwiththerelativepositionalmobilityoftheconstituentsofsentencesinthehierarchy.Takethewordchairmanforexample.Ifthemorphemesarerearrangedas*manchair,itisanunacceptablewordinEnglish.RelativeuninterruptibilityByuninterruptibi1ity,wemennewelementsarenottobeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.Nothingistobeinsertedinbetweenthethreepartsoftheworddisappointment:dis+appoint+ment.Norisoneallowedtousepausesbetweenthepartsofaword:*disappointment.AminimumfreeformThiswasfirstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfield.Headvocatedtreatingsentenceas“themaximumfreeform”andword"theminimumfreeform,“thelatterbeingthesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.1.3ClassificationofwordsVariableandinvariablewordsInvariablewords,onecanfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordform;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.E.g.follow-follows-following-followed.Invariablewordsrefertothosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello,etc.Theyhavenoinflectiveendings.GrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsGrammaticalwords,a.k.a.functionwords,expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns,aregrammaticalwords.Lexicalwords,a.k.a.contentwords,havelexicalmeanings,i.e.thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,arelexicalwords.Closed-classwordsandopen-classwordsClosed-classword:Awordthatbelongstotheclosed-classisonewhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Therefore,pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.areallcloseditems.Open-classword:Awordthatbelongstotheopen-classisonewhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbsareallopen-classitems.WordclassThisisclosetothenotionofpartsofspeechintraditionalgrammar.Today,wordclassdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedcategories.Herearesomeofthecategoriesnewlyintroducedintolinguisticanalysis.Particles:Particlesincludeatleasttheinfinitivemarker"to,"thenegativemarker“not,"andthesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs,suchas“getby,”“doup,”“lookback,"etc.Auxiliaries:Auxiliariesusedtoberegardedasverbs.Becauseoftheiruniqueproperties,whichonecouldhardlyexpectofaverb,linguiststodaytendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclass.Pro-forms:Pro-formsaretheformswhichcanserveasreplacementsfordifferentelementsinasentence.Forexample,inthefollowingconversation,soreplacesthatIcancome.Ihopeyoucancome.Ihopeso.Determiners:Determinersrefertowordswhichareusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas.Determinerscanbedividedintothreesubclasses:predeterminers,centraldeterminersandpostdeterminers.2Theformationofword.2.1MorphemeandmorphologyMorphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed..2.2TypesofmorphemesFreemorphemeandboundmorphemeFreemorphemes:Thosewhichmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,arefreemorphemes.Boundmorphemes:Thosewhichmustappearwithatleastanothermorphemearecalledboundmorphemes.Root,affixandstemArootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzed.Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Thatistosay,itisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.Inthewordinternationalism,aftertheremovalofinter-,-aland-ism,whatisleftistherootnation.Allwordscontainarootmorpheme.Arootmaybefreeorbound.E.g.blackinblackbird,blackboardandblacksmith;-ceiveinreceive,conceiveandperceive.AfewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariants.E.g.thewordsleepisafreerootmorpheme,whereasslep-inthepasttenceformsleptcannotexistbyitself,andthereforebound.Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.E.g.friend-infriendsandfriendship-infriendshipsarebothstems.Theformershowsthatastemcanbeequivalenttoaroot,whereasthelattershowsthatastemmaycontainarootandaderivationalaffix.InflectionalaffixandderivationalaffixInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixesissometimesknownasadistinctionbetweeninflectionalmorphemesandderivationalmorphemes.Wecantellthedifferencebetweenthemwiththefollowingways:Inflectionalaffixesveryoftenaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem.E.g.toys,walks,John's,etc.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrast,derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning.E.g.cite,citation,etc.Inflectionalaffixesdon'tchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchastherelationbetweensmallandsmallnessfortheformer,andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter.Inflectionalaffixesareoftenconditionedbynonsemanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordtheyattachtobutwithinthephraseorsentence.E.g.thechoiceoflikesin“Theboylikestonavigateontheinternet."isdeterminedbythesubjecttheboyinthesentence,whereasderivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.E.g.Thechoiceofcleverandclevernessdependsonwhetherwewanttotalkabouttheproperty“clever”orwewanttotalkabout“thestateofbeingclever.”InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal.E.g.drums,walks,etc.Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixesorsuffixes.E.g.depart,teacher,etc.InflectionandwordformationInflectionInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.WordformationWordformationreferstotheprocessofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andderivationaltype(derivation)CompoundCompoundsrefertothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform,suchasice-cream,sunrise,paperbag,railway,rest-room,simple-minded,wedding-ring,etc.Theheadofanominaloranadjectivalendocentriccompoundisdeverbal,thatis,itisderivedfromaverb.Consequently,itisalsocalledaverbalcompoundorasyntheticcompound.Usually,thefirstmemberisaparticipantoftheprocessverb.E.g.Nouns:self-control,pain-killer,etc.Adjectives:virus-sensitive,machinewashable,etc.TheexocentriccompoundsareformedbyV+N,V+A,andV+P,whereastheexocentriccomefromV+NandV+A.E.g.Nouns:playboy,cutthroat,etc.Adjectives:breakneck,walk-in,etc.DerivationDerivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandsuffixes.Incontrastwithinflections,derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchangedorunchanged.ThecounterpointofphonologyandmorphologyAllomorph:Anyofthedifferentformsofamorpheme.Morphophonology/morphophonemics:Morphophonologyisabranchoflinguisticsreferringtotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,andcorrespondingly,thegrammaticalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofphonemes.Itisalsocalledmorphonologyormorphonemics.Assimilation:Assimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled"contact"or“contiguous”assimilation.Dissimilation:Dissimilationreferstotheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.3.3LexicalchangeLexicalchangeproperInventionSinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtheconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnames.BlendingBlendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.Abbreviation/clippingAnewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpartorcuttingboththeinitialpartsoftheoriginalwords.AcronymAcronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.Back-formation“Contextualism”isbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfrom,orreduceitto,observablecontext:thesituationalcontextwandthewlinguisticcontext”.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatial-temporalsituation,asthefollowingfactorsarerelatedtothesituationalcontext:(1)thespeakerandthehearer;(2)theactionstheyareperformingatthetime;(3)variousexternalobjectsandevents;(4)deicticfeatures.The^linguisticcontext”isanotheraspectofcontextualism.Itconsiderstheprobabilityofoneword'sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanother,whichformspartofthemeaning,andanimportantfactorincommunication.Halliday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:AccordingtoHuZhuang1in,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:5.1InformativeInterpersonalfunctionTheinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.PerformativeTheperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytoBack-formationreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimagedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.AnalogicalcreationTheprincipleofanalogicalcreationcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.BorrowingEnglishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess.PhonologicalchangeLossThelossofsoundcanfirstrefertothedisappearanceoftheverysoundasaphonemeinthephonologicalsystem.Thelossofsoundsmayalsooccurinutterancesattheexpenseofsomeunstressedwords.AdditionSoundsmaybelostbuttheymayalsobeaddedtotheoriginalsoundsequence.MetathesisMetathesisisaprocessinvolvinganalternationinthesequenceofsounds.Metathesishadbeenoriginallyaperformanceerror,whichwasoverlookedandacceptedbythespeechcommunity.AssimilationAssimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled“contact"or"contiguous”assimilation.Morpho-syntacticalchangeMorphologicalchangeTheformofinflectionalaffixesmayalsochange.SyntacticalchangeTherearemoreinstancesofchangesinthesyntacticalfeaturesofwords3.4SemanticchangeBroadeningBroadeningisaprocesstoextendorelevatethemeaningfromitsspecificsensetoarelativelygeneralone.NarrowingContrarytobroadening,theoriginalmeaningofawordcanbenarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense.MeaningshiftAllsemanticchangesinvolvemeaningshift.Heremeaningshiftisunderstoodinitsnarrowsense,i.e.thechangeofmeaninghasnothingtodowithgeneralizationorrestrictionasmentionedabove.ClassshiftByshiftingthewordclassonecanchangethemeaningofawordfromaconcreteentityornotiontoaprocessorattribution.Thisprocessofwordformationisalsoknownaszero-derivation,orconversion.FolketymologyFolketymologyreferstoachangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous.3.3.5OrthographicchangeChangescanalsobefoundatthegraphiticlevel.SincewritingisarecordingofthesoundsysteminEnglish,phonologicalchangeswillnodoubtsetoffgraphiticchanges.Chapter4SyntaxThetraditionalapproach1.1Number,genderandcaseTenseandaspect[Forthesetwosections,pleaseconsultmaterialsontraditionalEnglishgrammar.-icywarmtea]ConcordandgovernmentConcord(a.k.a.agreement)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.E.g.inEnglishthedeterminerandthenounitprecedesshouldconcordinnumberasinthisman,thesemen.Andtheformofasubjectshouldagreewiththatoftheverbintermsofnumberinthepresenttense,e.g.HespeaksEnglish;TheyspeakEnglish.Governmentisanothertypeofcontrolovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstruction.Itdiffersfromconcordinthatthisisarelationshipinwhichawo