合作学习与协作学习概念辨析：collaborative

合作学习与协作学习概念辨析：collaborativelearningversus

cooperativelearningADefinitionofCollaborativevsCooperativeLearningTedPanitz(1996)IhavebeensearchingformanyyearsfortheHolyGrailofinteractivelearning,adistinctionbetweencollaborativeandcooperativelearningdefinitions.IamgettingclosertomyelusivegoalallthetimebutIamstillnotcompletelysatisfiedwithmyperceptionofthetwoconcepts.IbelievemyconfusionariseswhenIlookatprocessesassociatedwitheachconceptandseesomeoverlaporinter-conceptusage.Iwillmakeahumbleattempttoclarifythisquestionbypresentingmydefinitionsandreviewingthoseofotherauthorswhohavehelpedclarifymythinking.Collaborationisaphilosophyofinteractionandpersonallifestylewhereascooperationisastructureofinteractiondesignedtofacilitatetheaccomplishmentofanendproductorgoal.Collaborativelearning(CL)isapersonalphilosophy,notjustaclassroomtechnique.Inallsituationswherepeoplecometogetheringroups,itsuggestsawayofdealingwithpeoplewhichrespectsandhighlightsindividualgroupmembers,abilitiesandcontributions.Thereisasharingofauthorityandacceptanceofresponsibilityamonggroupmembersforthegroupsactions.Theunderlyingpremiseofcollaborativelearningisbaseduponconsensusbuildingthroughcooperationbygroupmembers,incontrasttocompetitioninwhichindividualsbestothergroupmembers.CLpractitionersapplythisphilosophyintheclassroom,atcommitteemeetings,withcommunitygroups,withintheirfamiliesandgenerallyasawayoflivingwithanddealingwithotherpeople.Cooperativelearningisdefinedbyasetofprocesseswhichhelppeopleinteracttogetherinordertoaccomplishaspecificgoalordevelopanendproductwhichisusuallycontentspecific.Itismoredirectivethanacollaboratvesystemofgovernanceandcloselycontrolledbytheteacher.Whiletherearemanymechanismsforgroupanalysisandintrospectionthefundamentalapproachisteachercenteredwhereascollaborativelearningismorestudentcentered.SpencerKaganinanarticleinEducationalLeadership(Dec/Jan1989/1990)providesanexcellentdefinitionofcooperativelearningbylookingatgeneralstructureswhichcanbeappliedtoanysituation.HisdefinitionprovidesanunbrellafortheworkcooperativelearningspecialistsincludingtheJohnsons,Slavin,Cooper,GravesandGraves,Millis,etc.Itfollowsbelow:"Thestructuralapproachtocooperativelearningisbasedonthecreation,analysisandsystematicapplicationofstructures,orcontent-freewaysoforganizingsocialinteractionintheclassroom.Structuresusuallyinvolveaseriesofsteps,withproscribedbehaviorateachstep.Animportantcornerstoneoftheapproachisthedistinctionbetween"structures"and"activities"."Toillustrate,teacherscandesignmanyexcellentcooperativeactivities,suchasmakingateammuraloraquilt.Suchactivitiesalmostalwayshaveaspecificcontent-boundobjectiveandthuscannotbeusedtodeliverarangeofacademiccontent.Structuresmaybeusedrepeatedlywithalmostanysubjectmatter,atawiderangeofgradelevelsandatvariouspointsinalessonplan."JohnMyers(CooperativeLearningvol11#4July1991)pointsoutthatthedictionarydefinitionsof"collaboration",derivedfromitsLatinroot,focusontheprocessofworkingtogether;therootwordfor"cooperation"stressestheproductofsuchwork.Co-operativelearninghaslargelyAmericanrootsfromthephilosophicalwritingsofJohnDeweystressingthesocialnatureoflearningandtheworkongroupdynamicsbyKurtLewin.CollaborativelearninghasBritishroots,basedontheworkofEnglishteachersexploringwaystohelpstudentsrespondtoliteraturebytakingamoreactiveroleintheirownlearning.Thecooperativelearningtraditiontendstousequantitativemethodswhichlookatachievement:i.e.,theproductoflearning.Thecollaborativetraditiontakesamorequalitativeapproach,analyzingstudenttalkinresponsetoapieceofliteratureoraprimarysourceinhistory.Myerspointsoutsomedifferencesbetweenthetwoconcepts:Supportersofco-operativelearningtendtobemoreteacher-centered,forexamplewhenformingheterogeneousgroups,structuringpositiveinter-dependence,andteachingco-operativeskills.Collaborativelearningadvocatesdistruststructureandallowstudentsmoresayifformingfriendhipandinterestgroups.Studenttalkisstressedasameansforworkingthingsout.Discoveryandcontexturalapproachesareusedtoteachinterpersonalskills.""Suchdifferencescanleadtodisagreements....Icontendthedisputeisnotaboutresearch,butmoreaboutthemoralityofwhatshouldhappenintheschools.Beliefsastowhastshouldhappenintheschoolscanbeviewedasacontinuumoforientationstowardcurriculumfrom"transmission"to"transaction"to"transmission".Atoneendisthetransmissionposition.Asthenamesuggests,theaimofthisorientationistotransmitknowledgetostudentsintheformoffacts,skillsandvalues.Thetransformationpositionattheotherendofthecontinuumstressespersonalandsocialchangeinwhichthepersonissaidtobeinterrelatedwiththeenvironmentratherthanhavingcontroloverit.Theaimofthisorientationisself-actualization,personalororganizationalchange."RockyRockwood(NationalTeachingandLearningForumvol4#6,1995part1)describesthedifferencesbyacknowledgingtheparallelstheybothhaveinthattheybothusegroups,bothassignspecifictasks,andbothhavethegroupsshareandcomparetheirproceduresandconclusionsinplenaryclasssessions.Themajordifferenceliesinthefactthatcooperativedealsexclusivelywithtraditional(canonical)knowledgewhilecollaborativetiesintothesocialconstructivistmovement,assertingthatbothknowledgeandauthorityofknowledgehavechangeddramaticallyinthelastcentury."Theresulthasbeenatransitionfrom"foundational(cognitive)understandingofknowledge",toanonfoundationalgroundwhere"weunderstandknowledgetobeasocialconstructandlearningasocialprocess"(Brufee,Collaborativelearning:HigherEducation,Interdependence,andtheAuthorityofKnowledge,1993).Rockwoodstates:"Intheidealcollaborativeenvironment,theauthorityfortestinganddeterminingtheappropriatenessofthegroupproductrestswith,first,thesmallgroup,second,theplenarygroup(thewholeclass)andfinally(butalwaysunderstoodtobesubjecttochallengeandrevision)therequisiteknowledgecommunity(i.e.thediscipline:geography,history,biologyetc.)Theconceptofnon-foundationalknowledgechallengesnotonlytheproductacquired,butalsotheprocessemployedintheacquisitionoffoundationalknowledge.""Mostimportantly,incooperative,theauthorityremainswiththeinstructor,whoretainsownershipofthetask,whichinvolveseitheraclosedoraclosable(thatistosayfoundational)problem(theinstructorknowsorcanpredicttheanswer).Incollaborative,theinstructor--oncethetaskisset--transfersallauthoritytothegroup.Intheideal,thegroup'staskisalwaysopenended.""Seenfromthisperspective,cooperativedoesnotempowerstudents.Itemploysthemtoservetheinstructor'sendsandproducesa"right"oracceptableanswer.Collaborativedoestrulyempowerandbravesalltherisksofempowerment(forexample,havingthegrouporclassagreetoanembarrassinglysimplisticorunconvincingpositionorproduceasolutioninconflictwiththeinstructor's)."Everyperson,Brufeeholds,belongstoseveral"interpretativeorknowledgecommunities"thatsharevocabularies,pointsofview,histories,values,conventionsandinterests.Thejoboftheinstructoridtohelpstudentslearntonegotiatetheboundariesbetweenthecommunitiestheyalreadybelongtoandthecommunityrepresentedbytheteacher'sacademicdiscipline,whichthestudentswanttojoin.Everyknowledgecommunityhasacoreoffoundationalknowledgethatitsmembersconsiderasgiven(butnotnecessarilyabsolute).Tofunctionindependentlywithinaknowledgecommunity,thefledglingscholarmustmasterenoughmaterialtobecomeconversantwiththecommunity."Rockwoodconcludes:"Inmyteachingexperience,cooperativerepresentsthebestmeanstoapproachmasteryoffoundationalknowledge.Oncestudentsbecomereasonablyconversant,theyarereadyforcollaborative,readytodiscussandassess,"Myerssuggestsuseofthe"transaction"orientationasacompromisebetweentakinghardpositionsadvocatingeithermethodology.Thisorientationviewseducationasadialoguebetweenthestudentandthecurriculum.Studentsareviewedasproblemsolvers.ProblemsolvingandinquiryapproachesstressingcognitiveskillsandtheideasofVygotsky,Piaget,KohlbergandBrunerarelinkedtotransaction.Thisperspectiveviewsteachingasa"conversation"inwhichteachersandstudentslearntogetherthroughaprocessofnegotiationwiththecur