社会研究方法艾尔巴比双语Ch课件

ThePracticeof

SocialResearch

社会研究方法

EarlBabbie（艾尔·巴比）

ChapmanUniversityThePracticeof

SocialResearc1Part1AnIntroductiontoInquiry研究概论Part1AnIntroductiontoInqui2Chapter1HumanInquiryandScience人类研究与科学Chapter1HumanInquiryandSci3ChapterOutlineLookingforReality寻求真实TheFoundationsofSocialScience社会研究的基础SomeDialecticsofSocialResearch社会研究中的一些辩证关系TheEthicsofSocialResearch社会研究的伦理ChapterOutlineLookingforRea4HowWeKnowWhatWeKnow（我们如何形成对世界的认知）DirectExperienceandObservation个人体验与观察PersonalInquiry个人研究Tradition传统（约定俗成的知识）Authority权威HowWeKnowWhatWeKnow（我们如何形5LookingforReality寻求真实Ourattemptstolearnabouttheworldareonlypartlylinkedtodirect,personalinquiryorexperience.我们对世界的认识和了解，只有部分来自于个人研究或经验。Alargerpartcomesfromagreed-onknowledgethatothersgiveus,things“everyoneknows.”大部分来自于别人告知的约定俗成的知识。Thisagreementrealitybothassistsandhindersourattemptstofindoutforourselves.这些约定俗成的真实，既可能帮助也可能阻碍我们亲手去发掘真实。LookingforReality寻求真实Ourat6SourcesofSecondhandKnowledgeBothprovideastartingpointforinquiry,butcanleadustostartatthewrongpointandpushusinthewrongdirection.二手知识既给我们提供了研究的起点（站在巨人的肩上），但也可能误导我们（错误的起点、错误的方向）Tradition传统Authority权威SourcesofSecondhandKnowledg7ScienceandInquiry科学与研究Epistemologyisthescienceofknowing.认识论是认识的科学Methodology(asubfieldofepistemology)mightbecalledthescienceoffindingout.

方法论（认识论的一支）或许可以称为寻找解答的科学ScienceandInquiry科学与研究Episte8QuestionHowdoindividualslearnalltheyneedtoknow?personalexperience个人体验Discovery探究发现fromwhatotherstellus别人说的allofthesechoices以上都是QuestionHowdoindividualslea9Answer:DIndividualslearnalltheyneedtoknowfrompersonalexperience,discoveryandfromwhatotherstellus.个体通过个人体验、主动探究发现和别人告知的，来获取所需的知识Answer:DIndividualslearnall10OrdinaryHumanInquiry一般的人类研究Humansrecognizethatfuturecircumstancesarecausedbypresentones.首先，人们认识到，未来的环境多少是由现在的状况造成的。Humanslearnthatpatternsofcauseandeffectareprobabilisticinnature.其次，人类知道因果关系牵涉到概率问题Humansaimtoanswer“what”and“why”questions,andpursuethesegoalsbyobservingandfiguringout.人类研究的目的在于回答“是什么”和“为什么”，通过观察和推理来达到目标。OrdinaryHumanInquiry一般的人类研究H11Inquiry:ErrorsandSolutions

研究中常见的错误及解决办法Inaccurateobservations不确切观察Measurementdevicesaddprecision.测量手段增加了准确性Overgeneralization过度概括化Enoughcases足够样本观察Repeatastudytomakesurethesameresultsareproducedeachtime.重复进行同一项研究，看是否每次都得到同样结果Inquiry:ErrorsandSolutions

12Selectiveobservation选择性观察Makeanefforttofindcasesthatdonotfitthegeneralpattern.找出不符合一般情形的异常案例IllogicalReasoning非逻辑推理Usesystemsoflogicexplicitly.有意识地运用逻辑体系来避免这样的情形Inquiry:ErrorsandSolutions

研究中常见的错误及解决办法Selectiveobservation选择性观察Inq13ViewsofReality对真实的看法Premodern-Thingsareastheyseemtobe.前现代观点：眼见为实Modern-Acknowledgmentofhumansubjectivity.现代观点：仁者见仁智者见智Postmodern-Thereisnoobjectiverealitytobeobserved.后现代观点：没什么真实的世界可供观察。所有的真实，都源于自我观点中的想象。ViewsofReality对真实的看法Premode14ABook一本书Allofthesearethesamebook,butitlooksdifferentwhenviewedfromdifferentlocations,perspectives,or“pointsofview.”这些都是同一本书。但放置的位置、视角不同或人们观点不同，他看起来就不一样。ABook一本书Allofthesearethe15PointofViewWife’sPointofView.Thereisnoquestioninthewife’smindastowhoisrightandrationalandwhoisoutofcontrol.在妻子看来，谁是正确、理智的，以及谁失去了理智，是显而易见的。PointofViewWife’sPointofV16PointofViewHusband’sPointofView.Thehusbandhasaverydifferentperceptionofthesamesetofevents,ofcourse.丈夫的视角。对同一件事，他的看法截然不同。PointofViewHusband’sPointo17QuestionInyourdiscussionofmeasurementwithafriend,shearguesthatwhatyouaretryingtomeasuredoesnotexistandyourownpointofviewwilldeterminewhatyouperceiveinmeasuring.Shehaswhichviewofreality?correctpremodernmodernpostmodernScientificQuestionInyourdiscussionof18Answer:DInyourdiscussionofmeasurementwithafriend,shearguesthatwhatyouaretryingtomeasuredoesnotexistandyourownpointofviewwilldeterminewhatyouperceiveinmeasuring.Shehasthepostmodernviewofreality.后现代的观点Answer:DInyourdiscussionof19QuestionYou'vegottenA'sonthelastthreetests.Youhavearesearchprojectduethelastdayofclassandyou’resureyou’regoingtoflunkbecausesomethinghastobreakthisstreakofgoodluck.You’vefallenpreyto:illogicalreasoning.inaccurateobservation.selectiveobservation.over-emphasisontradition.overgeneralization.QuestionYou'vegottenA'sont20Answer:AYou'vegottenA'sonthelastthreetests.Youhavearesearchprojectduethelastdayofclassandyou’resureyou’regoingtoflunkbecausesomethinghastobreakthisstreakofgoodluck.You’vefallenpreytoillogicalreasoning.Answer:AYou'vegottenA'son21FoundationsofSocialScience社会科学的基础Thefoundationsofsocialsciencearelogicandobservation.社会科学的基础是逻辑和观察Ascientificunderstandingoftheworldmustmakesenseandcorrespondtowhatweobserve.科学对世界的理解，必须言之成理，并且符合我们的观察。Bothareessentialtoscienceandrelatetothethreemajoraspectsofsocialscientificenterprise:theory,datacollection,anddataanalysis.这两者对科学都不可或缺，而且与科学研究的三大层面密切相关，理论、资料收集和资料分析。FoundationsofSocialScience22FoundationsofSocialScience社会科学的基础Theory-Systematicexplanationfortheobservationsthatrelatetoaparticularaspectoflife.理论旨在系统地解释对生活中某一方面的观察Datacollection-observation资料搜集旨在整理观察的结果DataAnalysis-thecomparisonofwhatislogicallyexpectedwithwhatisactuallyobserved.资料分析，是比较逻辑预期和实际观察，寻找可能的模式。FoundationsofSocialScience23SocialRegularities社会规律ExamplesofPatternsinsociallife:社会生活的规范Onlypeople18andoldercanvote.只有18岁以上的人的可以投票Onlypeoplewithalicensecandrive.只有18岁以上且有执照的人可以开车SocialRegularities社会规律Exampl24Aggregates总体而非个体Thecollectiveactionsandsituationsofmanyindividuals.集体行为和许多个人的状况

——社会科学处理的是集体而非个体的行为Focusofsocialscienceistoexplainwhyaggregatedpatternsofbehaviorareregularevenwhenindividualschangeovertime——社会科学的目的在于解释为什么即使个体行为随着时间改变，集体行为的模式却有规律可循。Aggregates总体而非个体Thecollectiv25Birthrates,UnitedStates:1980–20021982 15.91983 15.61984 15.6 1985 15.81986 15.61987 15.7 1988 16.01989 16.41990 16.71991 16.21992 15.81993 15.41994 15.01995 14.61996 14.41997 14.21998 14.31999 14.22000 14.42001 14.12002 13.9Birthrates,UnitedStates:198026QuestionSocialresearchaimstofind__________insociallife.answersknowledgepracticalityregularitytruthQuestionSocialresearchaimst27Answer:DSocialresearchaimstofindregularityinsociallife.社会研究旨在发现社会生活的规律。Answer:DSocialresearchaims28AVariableLanguageVariable

Logicalgroupingsofattributes.

Attribute

Characteristicsorqualitiesthatdescribeanobject.AVariableLanguageVariable

Lo29AVariableLanguage变量语言Independentvariable自变量

Avariablethatispresumedtocauseordetermineadependentvariable.被假定的影响或决定因变量的变量。Dependentvariable因变量

Avariablethatisassumedtodependonoriscausedbyanothervariable.依赖于或被其他变量所决定的变量。AVariableLanguage变量语言Indepe30VariableLanguage变量语言VariableLanguage变量语言31RelationshipBetweenTwoVariables两个变量之间的关系RelationshipBetweenTwoVaria32EducationandRacialPrejudice教育与种族偏见LevelofEducation

%sayingAfrican-AmericanshavelessinbornabilitytolearnLessthanhighschoolgraduate26%Highschoolgraduate10%Juniorcollege15%Bachelor’sdegree6%Graduatedegree3%EducationandRacialPrejudice33QuestionProfessorFremlerexaminedthefollowingcategoriesofmaritalstatus:married,nevermarried,widowed,separated,anddivorced.Thesecategoriesareknownasvariables.变量attributes.属性variablecategories.变量类别unitsofanalysis.分析单元theoreticalelements.理论元素QuestionProfessorFremlerexam34Answer:BProfessorFremlerexaminedthefollowingcategoriesofmaritalstatus:married,nevermarried,widowed,separated,anddivorced.Thesecategoriesareknownasattributes.（属性）Answer:BProfessorFremlerexa35ApproachestoSocialResearch社会研究的方法（1）Idiographic-Seekstofullyunderstandthecausesofwhathappenedinasingleinstance.个案式解释：试图穷尽某个特定情形或是事件的所有原因Nomothetic—Seekstoexplainaclassofsituationsoreventsratherthanasingleone.通则式解释：寻求解释某一类情形或者事件，而不仅是为了解释个案。ApproachestoSocialResearch36IdiographicandNomotheticReasoninginEverydayLife日常生活中的个案式和通则式推理Idiographic:“He’slikethatbecausehisfatherandmotherkeptgivinghimmixedsignals.Thefactthathisfamilymovedseventimesbythetimehewas12yearsolddidn’thelp.Moreover,hisolderbrotherisexactlythesameandprobablyservedasarolemodel.”Nomothetic:“Teenageboysarelikethat.”IdiographicandNomotheticRea37ApproachestoSocialResearch社会研究的方法（2）Induction–Fromspecificobservationstothediscoveryofapatternamongallthegivenevents.归纳：从个别到一般Deduction-Fromapatternthatmightbelogicallyexpectedtoobservationsthattestwhetherthepatternoccurs.演绎：从一般到个别，即从逻辑或理论上预期的模式，到观察检验预期的模式是否存在。ApproachestoSocialResearch38TheWheelofScience科学轮TheWheelofScience科学轮39ApproachestoSocialResearch社会研究的方法（3）QualitativeData–Nonnumericaldata.定性资料：非数据化资料QuantitativeData-Numericaldata.Makesobservationsmoreexplicitandmakesiteasiertoaggregate,compare,andsummarizedata.定性资料：数据化资料。定量化使得我们的观察更加明确，也更容易将资料整合、对比或得出结论。ApproachestoSocialResearch40ApproachestoSocialResearch社会研究的方法（4）PureResearch-Sometimesjustifiedintermsofgaining“knowledgeforknowledge’ssake.”纯粹研究：以寻求“纯粹的知识”而获得正当性AppliedResearch–Puttingresearchintopractice.应用研究：将研究应用于实践ApproachestoSocialResearch41EthicalGuidelinesofSocialResearch社会研究中的伦理TwoBasicGuidelines:两条基本原则Participationshouldbevoluntary.参与者必须出于自愿。Socialresearchmustbringnoharmtoresearchsubjects.社会研究必须对参与研究的人无害。EthicalGuidelinesofSocialR42QuickQuizQuickQuiz431.Thetwofoundationsofsciencearetraditionandobservation.observationandlogic.logicandtheory.theoryandobservation.logicandgeneralization.1.Thetwofoundationsofscie44Answer:BThetwofoundationsofscienceareobservationandlogic.Answer:BThetwofoundationso452.Sciencedealswithwhatshouldbeandnotwithwhatis.cansettledebatesonvalue.isexclusivelydescriptive.hastodowithdisprovingphilosophicalbeliefs.hastodowithhowthingsareandwhy.2.Science46Answer:ESciencehastodowithhowthingsareandwhy.Answer:ESciencehastodowit473.Whensocialscientistsstudyvariables,theyfocusonattributes.groups.people.characteristics.relationships.3.Whensocialscientistsstud48Answer:EWhensocialscientistsstudyvariables,theyfocusonrelationships.Answer:EWhensocialscientist494.___________elligenceexamtakingepistemologymethodology4.___________isthescience50Answer:CEpistemologyisthescienceofknowing.Answer:CEpistemologyisthe515.Whichofthefollowingaretrueoftraditionandauthority?theybothassisthumaninquirytheybothhinderhumaninquirybothaandbnoneofthesechoices5.Whichofthefollowingare52Answer:CWhichofthefollowingaretrueoftraditionandauthority:theybothassisthumaninquiryandtheybothhinderhumaninquiry.Answer:CWhichofthefollowin536.__________explanationsseektoexhausttheidiosyncraticcausesofaparticularconditionorevent.idiographiclatentmanifestnomothetic6.__________explanationsse54Answer:AIdiographicexplanationsseektoexhausttheidiosyncraticcausesofaparticularconditionorevent.Answer:AIdiographicexplanat55ThePracticeof

SocialResearch

社会研究方法

EarlBabbie（艾尔·巴比）

ChapmanUniversityThePracticeof

SocialResearc56Part1AnIntroductiontoInquiry研究概论Part1AnIntroductiontoInqui57Chapter1HumanInquiryandScience人类研究与科学Chapter1HumanInquiryandSci58ChapterOutlineLookingforReality寻求真实TheFoundationsofSocialScience社会研究的基础SomeDialecticsofSocialResearch社会研究中的一些辩证关系TheEthicsofSocialResearch社会研究的伦理ChapterOutlineLookingforRea59HowWeKnowWhatWeKnow（我们如何形成对世界的认知）DirectExperienceandObservation个人体验与观察PersonalInquiry个人研究Tradition传统（约定俗成的知识）Authority权威HowWeKnowWhatWeKnow（我们如何形60LookingforReality寻求真实Ourattemptstolearnabouttheworldareonlypartlylinkedtodirect,personalinquiryorexperience.我们对世界的认识和了解，只有部分来自于个人研究或经验。Alargerpartcomesfromagreed-onknowledgethatothersgiveus,things“everyoneknows.”大部分来自于别人告知的约定俗成的知识。Thisagreementrealitybothassistsandhindersourattemptstofindoutforourselves.这些约定俗成的真实，既可能帮助也可能阻碍我们亲手去发掘真实。LookingforReality寻求真实Ourat61SourcesofSecondhandKnowledgeBothprovideastartingpointforinquiry,butcanleadustostartatthewrongpointandpushusinthewrongdirection.二手知识既给我们提供了研究的起点（站在巨人的肩上），但也可能误导我们（错误的起点、错误的方向）Tradition传统Authority权威SourcesofSecondhandKnowledg62ScienceandInquiry科学与研究Epistemologyisthescienceofknowing.认识论是认识的科学Methodology(asubfieldofepistemology)mightbecalledthescienceoffindingout.

方法论（认识论的一支）或许可以称为寻找解答的科学ScienceandInquiry科学与研究Episte63QuestionHowdoindividualslearnalltheyneedtoknow?personalexperience个人体验Discovery探究发现fromwhatotherstellus别人说的allofthesechoices以上都是QuestionHowdoindividualslea64Answer:DIndividualslearnalltheyneedtoknowfrompersonalexperience,discoveryandfromwhatotherstellus.个体通过个人体验、主动探究发现和别人告知的，来获取所需的知识Answer:DIndividualslearnall65OrdinaryHumanInquiry一般的人类研究Humansrecognizethatfuturecircumstancesarecausedbypresentones.首先，人们认识到，未来的环境多少是由现在的状况造成的。Humanslearnthatpatternsofcauseandeffectareprobabilisticinnature.其次，人类知道因果关系牵涉到概率问题Humansaimtoanswer“what”and“why”questions,andpursuethesegoalsbyobservingandfiguringout.人类研究的目的在于回答“是什么”和“为什么”，通过观察和推理来达到目标。OrdinaryHumanInquiry一般的人类研究H66Inquiry:ErrorsandSolutions

研究中常见的错误及解决办法Inaccurateobservations不确切观察Measurementdevicesaddprecision.测量手段增加了准确性Overgeneralization过度概括化Enoughcases足够样本观察Repeatastudytomakesurethesameresultsareproducedeachtime.重复进行同一项研究，看是否每次都得到同样结果Inquiry:ErrorsandSolutions

67Selectiveobservation选择性观察Makeanefforttofindcasesthatdonotfitthegeneralpattern.找出不符合一般情形的异常案例IllogicalReasoning非逻辑推理Usesystemsoflogicexplicitly.有意识地运用逻辑体系来避免这样的情形Inquiry:ErrorsandSolutions

研究中常见的错误及解决办法Selectiveobservation选择性观察Inq68ViewsofReality对真实的看法Premodern-Thingsareastheyseemtobe.前现代观点：眼见为实Modern-Acknowledgmentofhumansubjectivity.现代观点：仁者见仁智者见智Postmodern-Thereisnoobjectiverealitytobeobserved.后现代观点：没什么真实的世界可供观察。所有的真实，都源于自我观点中的想象。ViewsofReality对真实的看法Premode69ABook一本书Allofthesearethesamebook,butitlooksdifferentwhenviewedfromdifferentlocations,perspectives,or“pointsofview.”这些都是同一本书。但放置的位置、视角不同或人们观点不同，他看起来就不一样。ABook一本书Allofthesearethe70PointofViewWife’sPointofView.Thereisnoquestioninthewife’smindastowhoisrightandrationalandwhoisoutofcontrol.在妻子看来，谁是正确、理智的，以及谁失去了理智，是显而易见的。PointofViewWife’sPointofV71PointofViewHusband’sPointofView.Thehusbandhasaverydifferentperceptionofthesamesetofevents,ofcourse.丈夫的视角。对同一件事，他的看法截然不同。PointofViewHusband’sPointo72QuestionInyourdiscussionofmeasurementwithafriend,shearguesthatwhatyouaretryingtomeasuredoesnotexistandyourownpointofviewwilldeterminewhatyouperceiveinmeasuring.Shehaswhichviewofreality?correctpremodernmodernpostmodernScientificQuestionInyourdiscussionof73Answer:DInyourdiscussionofmeasurementwithafriend,shearguesthatwhatyouaretryingtomeasuredoesnotexistandyourownpointofviewwilldeterminewhatyouperceiveinmeasuring.Shehasthepostmodernviewofreality.后现代的观点Answer:DInyourdiscussionof74QuestionYou'vegottenA'sonthelastthreetests.Youhavearesearchprojectduethelastdayofclassandyou’resureyou’regoingtoflunkbecausesomethinghastobreakthisstreakofgoodluck.You’vefallenpreyto:illogicalreasoning.inaccurateobservation.selectiveobservation.over-emphasisontradition.overgeneralization.QuestionYou'vegottenA'sont75Answer:AYou'vegottenA'sonthelastthreetests.Youhavearesearchprojectduethelastdayofclassandyou’resureyou’regoingtoflunkbecausesomethinghastobreakthisstreakofgoodluck.You’vefallenpreytoillogicalreasoning.Answer:AYou'vegottenA'son76FoundationsofSocialScience社会科学的基础Thefoundationsofsocialsciencearelogicandobservation.社会科学的基础是逻辑和观察Ascientificunderstandingoftheworldmustmakesenseandcorrespondtowhatweobserve.科学对世界的理解，必须言之成理，并且符合我们的观察。Bothareessentialtoscienceandrelatetothethreemajoraspectsofsocialscientificenterprise:theory,datacollection,anddataanalysis.这两者对科学都不可或缺，而且与科学研究的三大层面密切相关，理论、资料收集和资料分析。FoundationsofSocialScience77FoundationsofSocialScience社会科学的基础Theory-Systematicexplanationfortheobservationsthatrelatetoaparticularaspectoflife.理论旨在系统地解释对生活中某一方面的观察Datacollection-observation资料搜集旨在整理观察的结果DataAnalysis-thecomparisonofwhatislogicallyexpectedwithwhatisactuallyobserved.资料分析，是比较逻辑预期和实际观察，寻找可能的模式。FoundationsofSocialScience78SocialRegularities社会规律ExamplesofPatternsinsociallife:社会生活的规范Onlypeople18andoldercanvote.只有18岁以上的人的可以投票Onlypeoplewithalicensecandrive.只有18岁以上且有执照的人可以开车SocialRegularities社会规律Exampl79Aggregates总体而非个体Thecollectiveactionsandsituationsofmanyindividuals.集体行为和许多个人的状况

——社会科学处理的是集体而非个体的行为Focusofsocialscienceistoexplainwhyaggregatedpatternsofbehaviorareregularevenwhenindividualschangeovertime——社会科学的目的在于解释为什么即使个体行为随着时间改变，集体行为的模式却有规律可循。Aggregates总体而非个体Thecollectiv80Birthrates,UnitedStates:1980–20021982 15.91983 15.61984 15.6 1985 15.81986 15.61987 15.7 1988 16.01989 16.41990 16.71991 16.21992 15.81993 15.41994 15.01995 14.61996 14.41997 14.21998 14.31999 14.22000 14.42001 14.12002 13.9Birthrates,UnitedStates:198081QuestionSocialresearchaimstofind__________insociallife.answersknowledgepracticalityregularitytruthQuestionSocialresearchaimst82Answer:DSocialresearchaimstofindregularityinsociallife.社会研究旨在发现社会生活的规律。Answer:DSocialresearchaims83AVariableLanguageVariable

Logicalgroupingsofattributes.

Attribute

Characteristicsorqualitiesthatdescribeanobject.AVariableLanguageVariable

Lo84AVariableLanguage变量语言Independentvariable自变量

Avariablethatispresumedtocauseordetermineadependentvariable.被假定的影响或决定因变量的变量。Dependentvariable因变量

Avariablethatisassumedtodependonoriscausedbyanothervariable.依赖于或被其他变量所决定的变量。AVariableLanguage变量语言Indepe85VariableLanguage变量语言VariableLanguage变量语言86RelationshipBetweenTwoVariables两个变量之间的关系RelationshipBetweenTwoVaria87EducationandRacialPrejudice教育与种族偏见LevelofEducation

%sayingAfrican-AmericanshavelessinbornabilitytolearnLessthanhighschoolgraduate26%Highschoolgraduate10%Juniorcollege15%Bachelor’sdegree6%Graduatedegree3%EducationandRacialPrejudice88QuestionProfessorFremlerexaminedthefollowingcategoriesofmaritalstatus:married,nevermarried,widowed,separated,anddivorced.Thesecategoriesareknownasvariables.变量attributes.属性variablecategories.变量类别unitsofanalysis.分析单元theoreticalelements.理论元素QuestionProfessorFremlerexam89Answer:BProfessorFremlerexaminedthefollowingcategoriesofmaritalstatus:married,nevermarried,widowed,separated,anddivorced.Thesecategoriesareknownasattributes.（属性）Answer:BProfessorFremlerexa90ApproachestoSocialResearch社会研究的方法（1）Idiographic-Seekstofullyunderstandthecausesofwhathappenedinasingleinstance.个案式解释：试图穷尽某个特定情形或是事件的所有原因Nomothetic—Seekstoexplainaclassofsituationsoreventsratherthanasingleone.通则式解释：寻求解释某一类情形或者事件，而不仅是为了解释个案。ApproachestoSocialResearch91IdiographicandNomotheticReasoninginEverydayLife日常生活中的个案式和通则式推理Idiographic:“He’slikethatbecausehisfatherandmotherkeptgivinghimmixedsignals.Thefactthathisfamilymovedseventimesbythetimehewas12yearsolddidn’thelp.Moreover,hisolderbrotherisexactlythesameandprobablyservedasarolemodel.”Nomothetic:“Teenageboysarelikethat.”IdiographicandNomotheticRea92ApproachestoSocialResearch社会研究的方法（2）Induction–Fromspecificobservationstothediscoveryofapatternamongallthegivenevents.归纳：从个别到一般Deduction-Fromapatternthatmightbelogicallyexpectedtoobservationsthattestwhetherthepatternoccurs.演绎：从一般到个别，即从逻辑或理论上预期的模式，到观察检验预期的模式是否存在。ApproachestoSocialResearch93TheWheelofScience科学轮TheWheelofScience科学轮94ApproachestoSocialResearch社会研究的方法（3）QualitativeData–Nonnumericaldata.定性资料：非数据化资料QuantitativeData-Numericaldata.Makesobservationsmoreexplicitandmakesiteasiertoaggregate,compa