戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记-自己整理版

1、Chapter1IntroductionWhatislinguistics?什么是语言学ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage对语言进行的科学研究)Processoflinguisticstudy:Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;Hypothesesareformulated;Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;Alinguistict

2、heoryisconstructedThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics普通语言学：thestudyoflanguageasawhole从整体研究1.Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)2Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofsp

3、eechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)3Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)4Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsente

4、nces)Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstractionPragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteaching

5、andlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguisticsSomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsPrescriptivevs.Descriptive规定性与描写性Synchronicvs.Diachronic共时性与历时性(现代英语多研究共时性)Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;Thedescrip

6、tionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Speechandwriting言语与文字Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewrittenLangueandparole语言和言语ProposedbySwisslinguistsFdeSausse(sociological)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity（扌旨一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）一一Parole:referstothe_rea.liz.ati.Qn

7、.of.l.angue.in.一actual卫se（指语言在实际运用中的实现）Competenceandperformance语言能力与语言运用ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistNChomsky（psychological）Competencel：theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticscommunication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）Whatis

8、language?什么是语言ThedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication（语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。）a）System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules（根据规则组合在一起）b）Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c）Vocal:th

9、eprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages（所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d）Human:languageishuman-specific（语言是人类所独有的）BDesignfeatures（uniqueproperties）:thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication（识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetw

10、eenalinguisticform（eithersoundorword）anditsmeaningWhilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a）echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwords（拟声词）b）somecompoundwords（某些复合词）Productivity（能产性，创造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstru

11、ctionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.（Creativityoropen-endedness）Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword（doublearticulation）（语言是-个系统,包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没

12、有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker（refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations）Culturaltransition（文化传递性）Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis（everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage）,th

13、edetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.Theabove5propertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.Chapter2Phonology音位学Thedefinitionofphonetics（语音学）Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslang

14、uages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Articulatoryphonetics：thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.（发音语音学）Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.（听觉语音学）Auditory（orperceptual）phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.（声学语音学）Organsofspeech（发

15、音器官）Voiceless:清冃音whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Voiced（Voicing）:浊音whenthevocalcords声带aredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.AlltheEnglishvowels兀音aretypicallyvoiced（voicing）Theimportantcavities

16、:Thepharyngealcavity咽腔Theoralcavity口腔Thenasalcavity鼻腔其他部位：Lips唇1,teeth齿2,teethridge（alveolus）齿龈3,hardpalate硬腭4,softpalate（velum）软腭5,uvula小舌6,tipoftongue舌尖7,bladeoftongue舌面8,backoftongue舌后9,vocalcords声带10OrthographicrepresentationofspeechsoundsBroadandnarrowtranscriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音）IPA（Interna

17、tionalPhoneticAlphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标）Broadtranscriptionthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly（代表字母的符号）Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics（变音符）E.g.:lTli:f-Taclearl（nodiacritic）lTbild-Tadarkl（）lThelp-Tadentall（）pTpit-Tanaspiratedph（h表示送气）pTspit-Tanu

18、naspiratedp（nodiacritic）nTSbtnTasyllabicnasaln（養）ClassificationofEnglishconsonants（英语辅音的分类）Intermsofmannerofarticulation根据发音方法分（themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated）Stops闭塞音：theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptlyp/b,t/d,k/gFricatives摩擦音:theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthrougha

19、narrowpassageinthemonthf/v,s/z,J/3，/可，h（approximant）Affricates塞擦音:theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricativestJ/d3Liquids流音:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouthlTalateralsound;rTretroflexGlides滑音：w,j（semi-vowel

20、s）Liquid+glides+hTapproximantsNasals鼻音:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughitm,n,nByplaceofarticulation根据发音部位分（theplacewhereobstructioniscreated）bilabial双唇音：upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructionsp/b,wT（velar）labiodentals唇齿音：thelowerlipandtheupperteethf/v

21、dental齿音:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth0/8alveolar齿龈音：thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridget/d,s/z,n,l,rpalatal腭音：tongueinthemiddleofthepalate0/8,tJ/d3,jvelars软腭因：thebackofthetongueagainstthevelumk,g,nglottal喉音：theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynxhClassificationofEnglishvo

22、wels（英语兀音的分类）Thehighestpositionofthetongue:front,central,back;Theopennessofthemouth:close,semi-close,semi-open,open;Theroundness（shape）ofthemonth（thelips）:Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexcept达Allthebackvowels,exceptA:areroundedvowelsThelengthofthesound:longvowels&shortvowelsLarynx-（tens

23、e）or（lax）Monophthongs,diphthongsCardinalvowelsThedefinitionofphonology（音位学）Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsound

24、sofaparticularlanguages;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone,phoneme,andallophone（音素、音位、音位变体）Phone:aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment（因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）Phoneme:aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,it

25、isanabstractunit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体）Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,minimalpair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）Phonemiccontrast:whentwop

26、honemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyreinphonemiccontrast.E.g.pin&bin-/p/vs./b/rope&robe-/p/vs./b/（要会判断！）Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindif

27、ferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme（alwaysinthesa

28、meposition）,thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.Somerulesinphonologysequentialrules序列规则Phonotacticsof3consonantsoccurringinonset:如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则：Nol:/s/第一个音位一定是/s/voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/第二个音位一定是/p/,/t/,/k/approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/第三个音位一定是/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/No2:Theaffricatestf,d3andth

29、esibilantss,z,0,8arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilants.assimilationrules同化规则Co-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation.Assimilation&elisioneffects兀音省略Assimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheotherE.g.

30、nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.鼻音化现象deletionrule/Elision省略规则Definition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofaworeinisolationE.g.deleteagwhenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant省略词末鼻辅音前的g音Suprasegmentalfeatures（超音段特征）Stress重音Wordstress&sentencestressThest

31、ressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelementTone声调Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.像音素-一样可以区别意义Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones.汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调Level,rise,fall-rise,fall阴平阳平上声去声Intona

32、tion语调Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtones四种语调Thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltone降调声调将声调升降调Chapter3Morphology形态学Thedefinitionofmorpholog

33、yMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhich,studies.,ernal.structure.of.words.and.the.rules.by_whichwordsareformed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究）Morpheme|:词素themostbasicelementofmeaning.（意义的最基本要素）（Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction最小的意义单位或者语法功能）Freemorphemes&boundmorphemes（自由词素和黏着词素）Freemorphemes:canstandbythem

34、selvesassinglewordsLexicalmorphemesn.a.v&functionalmorphemesn.Boundmorphemes:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherform-Derivationalmorphemes派生词素-affix词缀（suffix,infix,prefix）+root后缀中缀前缀+词根Inflectionalmorphemes曲折词素8typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishNoun+-s,-spossessive所有格;p

35、lural复数Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en3rdpersonpresentsingular第三人称单数；presentparticiple现在分词；pasttense过去式,pastparticiple过去分词Adj+-er,-estcomparative比较级；superlative最高级Derivationalvs.Inflectional派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志）Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofaword只表示语法标志（时态、数、格）Inflectionalmorphemesinflue

36、ncethewholecategory词的范畴；DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder:root（stem）+derivational+inflectional词根/词干+派生+曲折MorphologicalRules形态学规则（词的构成方式T词素是怎样组合成为词）N.+lyTa.;A.+lyTadv.;guardovergeneralizationMorphsandallomorphs语素和语素变体Morphs:theactualformsusedtorealizemorphemesAllomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichare

37、versionsofonemorpheme,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.e.g.mapmapssdogdogszwatchwatchesizmousemiceaioxoxenntoothteethsheepsheepEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.Word-formationprocess（构词法）Coinagetheinventionoftotallynewterms（仓U造全新的词）BorrowingTthetakingoverofword

38、sformotherlanguagesCompoundingajoiningoftwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform（组成复合词）BlendingTtakingoverthebeginningofonewordandjoiningittotheendofotherwordClippingTawordofmorethanonesyllablereducedtoashorterformBackformationTaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingwordConvers

39、ionTcategorychange,functionalshiftAcronymsTnewwordsareformedfromtheinitiallettersofasetofotherwordsDerivationTthenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords（添加词缀）AbbreviationTashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform（缩短原词）Chapter4Syntax句法学AThedefinitionofsyntaxS

40、yntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandrulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）TypesofsentencesSimplesentence简单句：consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.Coordinate（Compound）sentence并列

41、（复合）句：containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunctions,suchas“and”，“by”，“or”.Complexsentence复杂句：containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheotherEmbeddedclause子句GTmatrixclause主句subordinatorfunctionsasagrammaticalunitmaybecompleteSomecategories(范畴)Syntacticcategories

42、:refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicate句法范畴Lexicalcategories:(partsofspeech)词汇范畴Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories):N.V.Adj.Adv.Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories):Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.phrasalcategories:NP,VP,PP,AP短语范畴Combinationa

43、lrulesAresmallinnumberYieldallthepossiblesentencesRuleouttheimpossibleonesphrasestructurerules(rewriterules)(短语结构规则)STNPVP(Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase)NPT(det.限定词)(Adj.)N(PP)(S).“T”：包括/分为VPT(qual.修饰词)V(NP)(POP)(S).“()”：内部的成分可以省略APT(deg.程度词)A(PP)(S).“.”：可以选择附加其他补语PPT

44、(deg.)PNP.X-bartheoryHeadTanobligatorywordthatgiversthephraseitsnameXPorX-phraseXPT(Specifier)X(complement)Formula:X”TSpecXX-bartheory(X-barschema)XTXcomplTransformationalrules转换规贝卩TD-structureandS-structure深层结构和表层结构Deepstructure:thestructurethatcorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.I

45、tisabstract,whichgivesthemeaningofasentenceandwhichitselfisnotpronounceable.Surfacestructure:lineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced.Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcrete,andgivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication.Twolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure:Onethatexistsbefor

46、emovementtakesplaceTheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplaceFormallinguisticexploration:D-structure:phrasestructurerules+lexiconSentenceatthelevelofD-structureTheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromD-structureleveltoS-structurelevelTransformational-generativelineofanalysisSynta

47、cticRelationsSequential(syntagmatic)relations组合关系ThelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentenceSubstitutional(paradigmatic)relations(聚合关系)Ifthewordsorphrasesinasentencecanbereplacedbywordsandphrasesoutsidethesentenceandtheresultingsentenceisstillgrammatical,thenwesaythereplacingformsandrepl

48、acedformshaveparadigmaticrelations.ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)ICAnalysisistosimplydivideasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutatfirstknowingwhattheseelementsare.Theprincipleisthatwetakeasentenceandcutitintotwoandthencutthesepartsintotwoandcontinuewiththissegmentationuntilwereachthes

49、mallestgrammaticalunit,themorphemesLabeledICanalysissyntacticcategoriescriteriainjudgingsyntacticcategories:morphologicalfeatures(inflectionalandderivationalaffixestheytake)(number,casegenderetc.)syntacticcontextsinwhichthelinguisticformscanoccurCategorytheboyoftenplaysaverysmallballmust,should.and,

50、but,or.determiner(Det.)noun(n.)qualifierverb(v.)Det.degreeword(Deg)modifiern.auxiliary(Aux.)conjunction(Con.)GThehierarchicalstructureofsentenceAsentencecanbeanalyzedintoconstituents.Conversely,constituentsatdifferentlevelscancombinetoformincreasinglylargerunits.Sentencesareanalyzedintoclausesareana

51、lyzedintophrasesareanalyzedintowordsareanalyzedintomorphemessentencessentencesareusedtobuildclausesareusedtobuildphrasesareusedtobuildIJwordsareusedtobuildmorphemesSotraditionally,sentencesareassumedtobemadeofindividualwordsinalineardirectionChapter5Semantics语义学ThedefinitionofsemanticsSemantics:_the

52、sudy一ofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview(对意义的研究)thenamingtheory命名论theconceptualistview概念论Thought/referenceconcept思想/指称Symbol/Form(words)符号/形式Referent-(realobject)所指Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning关于意义研究的一些观点contextualism:JohnFirth语境论behaviorism弓Bloomfield行为主义论basedoncontextualistviewS:stimulus

53、r:responseJillJackSrsR（thesmalllettersr,sTspeech）（thecapitalizedletterR,Spracticalevents）Senseandreference（意义和扌旨称）|Sensq：isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized（主要涉及语言形式的固有意义，是抽象，不与语境相关的）Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdea

54、lswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience（指语言形式在现实物质世界中的事物，是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系）MovingstarIoncewasbittenbyadog.MorningstarMindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.Majorsenserelations（主要的意义关系）synonymy同义现象弓thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningdialectalsynonyms方言同义词synony

55、msusedindifferentregionaldialects（美式/英式英语）stylisticsynonyms文体同义词synonymsdifferinginstyle（问题、正式度不同）synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感或评价意义不同的同义词（褒贬义）collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同）polysemy多义现象一newordthathasmorethanonerelatedmeaningh

56、omonymy同音异义Homophones:whentwowordsareidenticalinsound同音异义发音一样Homographs:whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling同形异义拼写一样Completehomonyms:whentwowordsareidenticalbothinspellingandinSound完全同音异义词hyponymy下义关系inclusiveness包含关系Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate上坐标词Thewordwhichismorespeci

57、ficinmeaningiscalledhyponym.Co-hyponym下坐标词antonymy反义词oppositenessGradableantonyms等级反义词（有中间词，程度不同）Complementaryantonyms互补反义词（两个极端dead/alive，male/female）Relationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenitems（关系反义词）Senserelationsbetweensentences句子之间的意义关系XissynonymouswithY（X与Y

58、同义）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y也假XisinconsistentwithY（X与Y不一致）如果X真，Y假；X假，Y真XentailsY（YisanentailmentofX）（X蕴含Y（Y是X的一个含义）如果X真，Y一定真（去过法国T一定去过欧洲）如果X假，Y有可能真（没去过法国弓去/没去过欧洲欧洲）XpresupposesY（YisaprerequisiteofX）（X预设Y（Y是X的先决条件）如果X真，Y一定真如果X假，Y仍然真XisacontradictionX自我矛盾（总是假）XissemanticallyanomalousX语义反常Componentialanalysisawayto

59、analyzelexicalmeaning（成分分析法-分析词汇意义的方法）Semanticfeatures语义特征：themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,orsemanticfeaturesPhonemedistinctivefeatures区别特征ShowhowthosewordsarerelatedinmeaningPredicationanalysisTawaytoanalyzesentencemeaningproposedbyBritishlinguistGLeech(述谓结构分析法-分析句子意义的方法)themea

60、ningofasentenceisnotthesumtotal(ofthemeaningsofallitscomponents)Grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning包括语法意义和语义意义Grammaticality语法规范性selectionalrestrictions选择限制规则Semanticanalysis:Predication(basicunit)述谓结构Ttheabstractmeaningofthesentence句子的抽象意义Argument(s)变兀(名词成分)predicate谓词(谓语)Logicalparticipant(s)Sths