翻译是指从语义到文体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对46

1、Chinese-English TranslationEnglish DepartmentCollege of Foreign LanguagesYangzhou UniversityDefinitions of translation Translating is the art of recomposing a work in another language without losing its original flavor. Columbia EncyclopediaTranslating is the replacement of textual material in one l

2、anguage (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL). J. C. CarfordDefinitions of translationTranslating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. 翻译是指从语义到文

3、体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原文的信息。 Eugene A. NidaTo translate is to change into another language, retaining as much of the sense as one can. Samuel JohnsonDefinitions of translation(Translating ) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text. Peter NewmarkT

4、ranslation is an art that involves the re-creation of a work in another language for readers with a different background. Malcolm CowleyDefinitions of translationA translation is taken to be any target-language utterance which is presented or regarded as such within the target culture, on whatever g

5、rounds. Gideon TouryTranslation is the production of a functional target text maintaining a relationship with a given source text that is specified according to the intended or demanded function of the target text. Christiane Nord Definitions of translationTranslation is an externally motivated indu

6、strial activity, supported by information technology, which is diversified in response to the particular needs of this form of communication. Jean SagerElements involved in the process of translatingAuthor of STSTTranslatorTTReaders of TTElements involved in the process of translating Intermediate i

7、nformation receiverAuthor of STSTTranslatorTTReaders of TT Secondary information dispatcher Definitions of translation翻译是一种跨文化的信息交流与交换活动，其本质是传播，是传播学中一个有特殊性质的领域。 吕俊翻译是把具有某一种文化背景的发送者用某种语言文字所表述的内容尽可能充分地、有效地传达给使用另一种语言文字、具有另一种文化背景的接受者。 沈苏儒Definitions of translation翻译是两个语言社会之间的交际过程和交际工具，它的目的是要促进本语言社会的政治、经

8、济和文化进步，它的任务是要把原作中包含的现实世界的逻辑映像或艺术映像，完好无损地从一种语言译注到另一种语言中去。 张今Sense of language1.sense of grammar2.sense of idiomaticness3.sense of meaning4.sense of style5.sense of situation6.sense of coherence杨晓荣.汉译能力解析.中国翻译，2002/6Translation as a task to be accomplished It is sometimes said that there is no task mo

9、re complex than translationa claim that can be readily believed when all the variables involved are taken into account. Translators not only need to know their source language well; they must also have a thorough understanding of the field of knowledge covered by the source text, and of any social,

10、cultural, or emotional connotations that need to be specified in the target language if the intended effect is to be conveyed. The same special awareness needs to be present for the target language, so that points of special phrasing, local (e. g. regional) expectations, and so on, can all be taken

11、into account. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language翻译的性质翻译是将一种语言文化承载的意义转换到另一种语言文化中的跨语言、跨文化的交际活动。意义的交流必须通过语言来实现，而每种语言都是一个独特文化的局部和载体。我们在转换一个文本的语言信息时，也在传达其蕴含的文化意义。翻译的本质是释义，是意义的转换。Criteria of translation诸佛典皆在天竺。天竺言语，与汉异音名物不同，传实不易仆初嫌其词不雅。维祇难曰：“佛言依其义不用饰，取其法不以严。其传经者，当令易晓，勿失厥义，是那么为善。座中咸曰：“老氏称：美言不信，信言不美。今传胡义，实且

12、径达。 支谦?法句经序? Criteria of translation夫译之为事难矣，译之将奈何？其平日冥心钩考，必先将所译者与所以译者两国之文字，深嗜笃好，字栉句比，以考彼此文字孳生之源，同异之故，所有相当之实义，委曲推究，务审其音势高低，相其字句之繁简，尽其文体之变态，及其义理精深奥折之所以然。夫如是，那么一书到手，经营反复，确知其意旨之所在，而又摹写其神情，仿佛其语气，然后心悟神解，振笔而书，译成之文，适如其所译而止，而曾无毫发出入于其间，夫而后能使阅者所得之益，与观原文无异，是那么为善译也已。 马建忠18451900，?拟设翻译书院议?，1894Criteria of transla

13、tion“译事三难：信、达、雅。求其信，已大难矣。顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，那么达尚焉。译文取明深意，故词句之间，时有所颠倒附益，斤斤于字比句次，而意义那么不倍本文。至原文词理本深，难于共喻，那么当前思后衬，以显其意。凡此经营，皆以为达：为达，即以为信也。?易?曰：“修辞立诚。子曰“辞达而已！又曰：“言之无文，行之不远。三者乃文章正轨，亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。 严复18541921，?天演论译例言?Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive and elegant. For a

14、translation to be faithful to the original is difficult enough, and yet if it is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should also be required.The Book of Changes says that rhetoric should uphold truthfulness. Confucius says that expressiveness is all that m

15、atters in language. He adds that if ones language lacks grace, it will not travel far. These qualities, then, are the criterion of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, a translator should also aim at elegance. (王佐良 译Criteria of translat

16、ion译者不但要求达义，并且要以传神为目的，译文必须忠实于原文之字神句气与言外之意。 林语堂以效果而论，翻译应像临画一样，所求的不在形似，而是神似。 傅雷Criteria of translation文学翻译的最高标准可以说是“化。把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既不能因语言习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算得入于“化境。 钱钟书真有灵感的译文，像投胎重生的灵魂一般，令人觉得是一种“再创造。 余光中Criteria of translation We expect approximate truth in translationwhat we want to ha

17、ve is the truest possible feel of the original. The characters, the situation, the reflection, must come to us as they were in the authors mind and breast, not necessarily by precisely as he had them on his lips. Oliver EdwardsCriteria of translationA good translator is: 1) To give a just representa

18、tion of the sense of the original, 2) To convey into his version, as much as possible, in a consistency with the genius of the language with which he writes, the authors spirit and manners, and 3) To take care that the version has at least the quality of an original performance so as to appear natur

19、al and easy. George CampbellCriteria of translationThe best of a real translation is that it should not read like translation at all. J. B. PhilipsNo translation, however learned, is of any value that does not give at least some of the joy to the readers that was given by its original. A. J. Arborry

20、Criteria of translation(Tri-ness) Faithfulness, expressiveness, and gracefulness were considered the golden rule in the field of translation. Herbert RotheinsteinCriteria of translation一是易解，二是保存原作的丰姿鲁迅神似similarity in spirit傅雷 化境sublimation钱钟书Alexander F. Tytlers three principlesFunctional equivalenc

21、e (Eugene A. Nida)功能相似，语义相符similarity in function and correspondence in meaning Yan Fus three-character criterion for translation Diverse interpretations are made of Yan Fus three-character criterion for translation as:“信Being faithful to the original忠实于原文“达Being explicit and smooth明白晓畅“雅Being elega

22、nt in diction (words)措辞的优雅Yan Fus three-character criterion for translation“信(faithfulness)达旨将原文说明“达(expressiveness)前后引衬，以显其意“雅(elegance)尔雅用汉以前字法句法Alexander F. Tytler1译文应完全传达原文的思想。A translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2译文的风格和笔调应与原文一致。The style and manner o

23、f writing should be of the same character as that of the original.3译文应像原文一样流畅。A translation should have all the ease of the original composition.Basic Differences between Chinese and English 一、语系汉语属汉藏语系Sino-Tibetan Family，英语属印欧语系Indo-European Family。二、文字汉语是表意文字ideographic script，英语是拼音文字alphabetic sc

24、ript。三、语音汉语是声调语言tonal language，英语是语调语言intonation language。四、词汇五、句法(形合与意合)六、篇章一构词1、构词法 汉语和英语都能用合成法compounding、缀合法affixation、音变法sound-changing、缩略法abbreviation构词，也都通过翻译从外语中借进新词。不同的是，汉语还使用重叠法reduplication，英语还用转换法conversion、逆构词法back-formation和截短法clipping构词。p.362、词义比照(1)词义涵盖(2)词的搭配3、词义关系词义相符semantic corre

25、spondence词义相异semantic non-correspondence词义空缺semantic zeroTranslation of Words and Expressions Proper words in their proper places (词适其所) make the true definition of style. (Jonathan Swift)The difference between the right word and the almost right word is really a large mattertis the difference betwe

26、en the lightning bug and the lightning. (Mark Twain)A word is a world. It is history in the briefest form. It is a spot on a page but often a story of great events and movement. You cant examine a word and learn it well without learning more than a word. (Charles W. Ferguson) 转引自：思果.?翻译研究?.中国对外翻译出版公

27、司，2001：1718Translation of Words and Expressions据文章 “积字为句、积句为段、积句为篇的创作程式，汉英翻译过程可相应为三个局部：选词、构句、谋篇。在翻译实践中，篇章是最终的考核质量的单位，句子是根本的操作单位，而大局部的难题都集中在词汇单位。Peter Newmark, 1981陈宏微2004：69There is inevitably a collision of backgrounds, of tradition, of environment, which each language carries with it. The mere und

28、erstanding of what words and sentences mean is not enough. To understand, each has to enter into the mental landscape, the history, the stage-setting of the others mentality. (Stephen Spender英国现代诗人) 转引自：思果.?翻译研究?.中国对外翻译出版公司，2001：1718词语指称意义与蕴涵意义确实定指称意义的理解与表达蕴涵意义的理解与表达指称意义的理解与表达一词多义广义狭义蕴涵意义的理解与表达褒贬语体修

29、辞文化语体庄严的文体the Frozen Style 正式的文体the Formal Style 商议性的文体the Consultative Style 随意的文体the Casual Style 亲密的文体the Intimate Style 我们要紧密地团结起来，同心协力，树雄心，立大志，向科学技术现代化进军，力争上游，攀登顶峰。先交代我自己吧。我是个算命的先生。我也卖过酸枣，落花生什么的，那可是先前的事了。现在我在街上摆卦摊，好了呢，一天也抓弄个三毛五毛的，老伴儿早死了，儿子拉洋车。我们爷儿俩住着柳家大院的一间北房。老舍?柳家大院?United closely with one hea

30、rt and concerted efforts and cherishing heroic aspirations and lofty ambitions, we will march toward to modernization of science and technology, aiming high to scale to heights.First, a few words about myself. Im a fortune-teller. Once I was a vender of sour dates, ground-nuts and what not. But that

31、 was ages ago. Now I keep a fortune-tellers stall on the side-walk and can scrape up three or five dimes a day at best. My old gal had long kicked up her heels. My sons rickshaw-boy. Thats wot hes. We two, father and son, hang up our hats at a south-facing room in the Lius compound.词语翻译与语言微观语境根据语言语境

32、确定原文词义根据语言语境选择译文用词根据语言语境消除歧义语言语境与词语感情色彩的传达词语翻译与文化宏观语境 A word is a world. It is history in the briefest form. It is a spot on a page but often a story of great events and movement. You cant examine a word and learn it well without learning more than a word. (Charles W. Ferguson) 你信也罢，不信也罢，考试那天他可是出足了风

33、头。他靠一知半解的临时抱佛脚居然考及格了，还受到了表扬。好多人比他强一千倍，反而没及格。 生长在乡间，失去了父母与几亩薄田，十八岁的时候便跑到城里来。带着乡间小伙子的足壮与老实，但凡以卖力气就能吃饭的事他几乎都作过了，可是，不久他就看出来，拉车是件更容易挣钱的事；作别的苦工，收入是有限的；拉车多着一些变化与时机，不知道在什么时候和地点就会遇到一些多于希望的报酬。 ?骆驼祥子? If you will believe me (believe it on not, would you believe (it), he went through with flying colors (success

34、fully; be in the limelight; attract more than enough attention) on the examination day! He went through on that purely superficial “cram, and got compliments too, while others, who knew a thousand times more than he, got plucked (Brit. Slang: to reject a candidate in an examination). Born in the cou

35、ntryside and having lost his parents and his barren lands, Xiangzi came to Beijing when he was eighteen. With strong muscle and honesty he did almost the labors by which he could earn his bread. Soon it appeared clear to him that a rickshaw was more paid than to do other labors with limited payment.

36、 Besides, drawing a rickshaw may be flexible and of much opportunity and sometimes he may be paid even much more than what he expected. Text types and translation typesThe content-focused textThe form-focused textThe appeal-focused text The audio-medial textThe content-focused text The principal kin

37、ds of text in the content-focused type would include press releases and comments, news reports, commercial correspondence (商业信件), inventories of merchandise (货物清单), operating instructions (操作指南), directions for use (说明书), patent specifications (专利说明), treaties (条约), official documents, educational w

38、orks (教材), non-fiction books of all sorts ,essays, treatises (专著), reports, theses (论文), and specialized literature in the humanities, the natural sciences, and other technical fields. The form-focused text Form-focused texts include literary prose (essays, biographies, belles-lettres), imaginative

39、prose (anecdotes, short stories, novellas, romances), and poetry in all its forms (from the didactic to balladry to the purely sentimental). Appeal-focused texts (感召性文本)The appeal-focused text type would include all texts in which the element of appeal is dominant, with advertising, publicity (布告),

40、preaching (布道), propaganda, polemic (辩论), demagogy (劝诱) or satire (讽喻) providing either the purpose or linguistic means of expression.Audio-medial texts (听觉媒介文本)Generally speaking, any text that requires the use of and a degree of accommodation to a non-linguistic medium in order to communicate with

41、 the hearer, whether in the source or in the garget language. Primary examples would be radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys (专题调查或评论) and dramatic productions (戏剧创作). Audio-medial texts (听觉媒介文本)Also belonging here are all texts which combine words with

42、music, from the most popular hits of the day to songs and hymns, to choral works and oratorios.Audio-medial texts would also include all stage productions, from musicals to operettas and operas, comedies and tragedies.Eugene A. Nida奈达Eugene A. Nida认为：“翻译是指从语义到文体在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原文的信息。Translation c

43、onsists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. Language Functions Nida 奈达在From One Language to Another(与J. Waard合著)中将功能分为九类：1表现功能(expressive function)2认知功能(cognitive function)3人际

44、功能(interpersonal function)4信息功能(informative function)5祈使功能(imperative function)6行为功能(performative function)7感情功能(emotive function)8审美功能(aesthetic function)9语言文化功能(metalingual function)HallidayHalliday认为语言有达意功能ideational function、人际功能(interpersonal function)和组篇功能(textual function)。The ideational func

45、tion is to organize the speakers or writers experience of the real or imaginary world, i.e. language refers to real or imagined persons, things, actions, events, states, etc.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It includes forms of ad

46、dress, speech function, MODALITY, etc.The textual function is to create written or spoken TEXTS which cohere within themselves and which fit the particular situation in which they are used. (Jack. C. Richards. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics. 2000：188)Karl Buhler布勒尔 Acc

47、ording to Karl Buhler布勒尔, language serves simultaneously to1.represent (objectively) 2.express (subjectively) 3.appeal (persuasively).Peter Newmark英国翻译理论家Peter Newmark将语言功能分为七类：1、信息功能informative function，传达信息。如：他是我哥哥。He is my elder brother.2、 表情功能expressive function，表达感情。如：这里风景多美啊！What a beautiful v

48、iew!3、祈使功能vocative function，使听者或读者作出文本所期望的反响。如：请坐下。4、美感功能aesthetic function，使感官愉快。如：“层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的；正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星。 朱自清：“荷塘月色The leaves were dotted in between the layers with white flowers, some blooming gracefully; others, as if bashfully, still in bud. They were like bright

49、 pearls and stars in an azure sky.王椒升译.一寸光阴一寸金Time is precious。5、认知功能cognitive function，人必须用语言进行思考，用语言“进行分析、综合、抽象、概括等思维活动，形成思想，表达思想。王德春，1997：8这便是语言的认知功能。6、酬应功能phatic function，使交际者保持接触，也可反映交际者之间的关系。如：你好。How do you do!幸会。Nice to see you!7、元语言功能metalingual function，指语言解释或命名自身特点的功能。如：语言是一种独特的符号系统。Langua

50、ge is a unique system of signs.MeaningDenotationConnotationDenotationdenotation: that part of meaning of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world. For example, the denotation of the English word “bird is a two-legged, winged, egg-laying, war

51、m-blooded creature with a beak. In a meaning system, denotative meaning may be regarded as the “central meaning or “core meaning of a lexical item. It is often equated with referential meaning and with cognitive meaning and conceptual meaning. Connotationconnotation: the additional meanings that a w

52、ord or phrase has beyond its central meaning. These meanings show peoples emotions and attitudes towards what the word or phrase refers to. For example, child could be defined as a young human being but there are many other characteristics which different people associate with child, e. g. affection

53、ate, amusing, lovable, sweet, mischievous, noisy, irritating, grubby.Meaning (semiotics, semiology)Intrinsic meaning Referential meaningPragmatic meaningMeaning within the language Meaning on the phonological levelMeaning on the lexical levelMeaning on the textual level Meaning on the phonological l

54、evel头韵(alliteration)：pretty as a picture, deaf as a doornail (全聋)半韵(assonance)：The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.和音(consonance)：The splendor falls on castle walls.尾韵(rhyme)：嘴上无毛，说话不牢。Downy lips make thoughtless slips.三个臭皮匠，合成一个诸葛亮。 Meaning on the lexical level While the Vietnam vet was fig

55、hting, and losing limb and mind, and dying, others stayed behind to pursue education and career.双关语(pun)：If we dont hang together, well hang separately.拈连(zeugma) ：1.他和他的驾照上周一道报销了。2.泪流满面，悲哀欲绝3.发动战争，谋求和平4.人穷志不穷人贫志不短5.这架飞机该有多大的重量啊！它载着解放区人民的心，载着全中国人民的希望，载着我们国家的命运。1.He and his driving license expired la

56、st week.2.weeping eyes and hearts3.wage war and peace4.poor but not wanting in enterprise; poor but with lofty ideals (aspirations)；5.What a heavy load this aeroplane bore! It carried the hearts of the people of the liberated areas, the hopes of the entire Chinese people, and the destiny of our coun

57、try. 除了内战内行之外，对于外战，就不能不是一个外行。In their elementin ones accustomed or preferred surroundings,在自己活动范围内，如鱼得水 when fighting internal war , they cannot but be out of their element when it comes to fighting external war.回环 (anadiplosis) 1. Beauty is truth, truth beauty.美就是真，真就是美。 2.举杯消愁愁更愁。Lift my cup of wi

58、ne to drown my sorrow? My sorrow leaves me not. 3.女人如花，花似梦。Women are like flowers, flowers are like dreams.大 学(孔子) 古之欲明明德于天下者，先治其国；欲治其国者，先齐其家；欲齐其家者，先修其身；欲修其身者，先正其心；欲正其心者，先诚其意；欲诚其意者，先致其知；致知在格物。物格而后知至；知至而后意诚；意诚而后心正；心正而后身修；身修而后家齐；家齐而后国治；国治而后天下平。 Meaning on the textual level无边落木萧萧下，不尽长江滚滚来。杜甫?登高?Through

59、 endless space with rustling soundThe falling leaves are whirled round.Beyond my ken a yeasty seaThe Yangtzes waves are rolling free. Their powers of conversation were considerable. They could describe an entertainment with accuracy, relate an anecdote with humor, and laugh at their acquaintance wit

60、h spirit.Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice她们的健谈本领真是吓人，描述起宴会来纤毫入微，说起故事来幽默横溢，嘲笑起朋友来也是有声有色。Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight, is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of business