(完整word版)英语语言学概论--整理.docx

1、ChaPter 1 LangUage 语言1. DeSign feature (识别特征)refers to the defining PrOPertieS OfhUman IangUage that distinguish it from any animal SyStem OfCOmmUniCatiOn.2. PrOdUCtiVity (能产性)refers to the ability that PeOPle have in making and COmPrehending indefiniteIy Iarge quantities Of SentenCeS in their nativ

2、e language.3. arbitrariness(任意'性)ArbitrarineSS refers to the PhenOmenOn that there is no motivated reIatiOnShiPbetween a IingUiStic form and its meaning.4. SymbOl (符号) SymbOl refers to SOmething SUCh as an object, word, Or SOUnd that represents SOmething else by association Or COnVention.5 discr

3、eteness (离散性 ) DiSCreteneSS refers to the PhenOmenOn that the SOUndS in a IangUage are meaningiully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) DiSPIaCement refers to the fact that human IangUage Can be USed to talk about things that are not in the immediate SitUatiOnS OfitS USerS7 duality Of StrUCtUre(结构二

4、重性 )The OrganiZatiOn OfIangUage into two IeVeIS, One OfSOUnds, the Other Ofmeaning, is known as duality Of StrUCtUre8. CUItUre transmission(文化传播)CUltUre transmission refers to the fact that IangUage is PaSSed On fromOne generation to the next through teaching and Iearning, rather than by inheritance

5、.9. interchangeability(互换'性)Interchangeability ITleanS that any human being Can be both a PrOdUCer and areceiver Of messages.1. What is language?LangUage is a SyStem Of arbitrary VOCal SymbOIS USed for human COmmUniCatiOn. ThiS definition hasCaPtUred the main features OfIangUageFirst, IangUage i

6、s a system.Second, IangUage is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature OfIangUage is SymbOliC nature2. What are the design features Oflanguage?LangUage has SeVen design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) DiSPIaCement4) Arbitrariness.5) CUItUral transmission6) DUality Of StrUCt

7、Ure 7) InterChangeability.3. Why do We Say IangUage is a system?BeCaUSe elements OfIangUage are COmbined according to rules, and every IangUage COntainS a Set OfrUIes.By system, the recurring PattemS Or arrangements Or the PartiCUIar WayS Or designs in WhiCh a IangUage operates. And the sounds, the

8、WOrdS and the SentenCeS are USed in fixed PatternS that SPeaker Of a IangUage Can UnderStand each other.4. ( FUnCtiOn Of IangUage .)ACCOrding to HalIiday, What are the initial ftnctions Of ChiIdrenlanguage? And What are the three Junctional COmPOnentS Of adult language?L HaIIiday USeS the following

9、terms to refer to the initial functions OfChiIdren S , language:1) InStrUmental ftnction. 工具功能2) RegUlatOry IUnCtion.调节功能3) RePreSentatiOnaI IUnCtion.表现功能4) InteraCtiOnal IUnCtion.互动功能5) PerSOnal function.自指性功能6) HeUriStiC Junction. 启変功能 osbQtq'kfh7) IlTlaginatiVe function.想象功能. AdUlt IangUage h

10、as three IUnCtiOnal COmPOnentS as following:1) InterPerSOnal COmPOnentS人际2) IdeatiOnalcomponents. 概念3) TeXtUal components. 语篇ChaPter 2 LingUiStics 语言学1. general IingUiStiCS and descriptive IingUiStics（普通语言学与描写语言学）The former deals With IangUagein general WhereaS the Iatter is COnCerned With One Parti

11、CUIar IangUage.2. SynChrOniC IingUiStiCS and diachronic IingUiStiCS（共时语言学与历时语言学the historical deveIOPmentOf the IangUageand records the ChangeS that haveSUCCeSSiVe POintS in time And SynChrOniCIingUiStiCS PreSentS an account OfPartiCUIar POint in time.3. theoretical IingUiStiCSand appliedIingUiStiCS

12、 （理论语言学与应用语言学）DiaChrOniC IingUiStiCS tracesin it between it is at SOmetaken PIaCe IangUage as）The formerCOPeS With the Ia tte r is.IangUageSWith a VieWto establishing a theoryOf their StrUCtUreS and functionsWhereaSCOnCerned With the application Ofthe COnCePtS and findings OflingUiStics to al

13、l SOrtS OfPraCtiCal tasks.4. microIinguistics and macroIinguistics（微观语言学与宏观语言学）The former StUdieS OnIy the StrUCtUre OfIangUage SyStem WhereaS the Iatter deals With everything that is reIated to languages.IangUe and ParOIe （语言与言语）The former refers to the abstract IingUiStiCS SyStem Shared by all the

14、 members Of a SPeeCh COmmUnity WhereaS the Iatter refers to the COnCrete act Of SPeaking in actual SitUatiOn by an individual SPeakerCOmPetenCe and performance （语言能力与语言运用）The former is One ， S knowledge Of all the IingUiStiC regulation SyStemS WhereaS the Iatter is the USe OfIangUage in COnCrete Sit

15、Uation.SPeeCh and Writing （口头语与书面语）SPeeCh is the SPOken form OfIangUage WhereaS Writing is Written codes, gives IangUage newscope._IingUiStiCS behavior POtential and actual IingUiStiC behavior （语言行为潜势与实际语言行为 actually SayS On a Certain OCCaSiOn to a Certain PerSOn is actual IingUiStiCS behavior. And

16、each OfPOSSibIe IingUiStiC items that he COUld have Said is IingUiStiC behavior POtentiaLSyntagmatiC reIatiOn and ParadigmatiCreIatiOn （*黄组合关系与纵聚合关系）The former describes thehorizontal dimension Of a IangUage WhiIe the Iatter describes the VertiCal dimension Of a language.）PeOPIe10. Verbal COmmUniCat

17、iOn and non-verbal COmmUniCatiOn（言语交际与WE言语交际 ）USUal USe OfIangUage asa means OftranSmitting information is CaIIed VerbaICOmmUniCation. The WayS We COnVey meaning WithOUt USing IangUage is Called non-verbal COmmUniCation.1. HOW does JOhn LyOnS CIaSSiiy IingUiStiCS?ACCOrding to JOhn Lyons, the fieId O

18、fIingUiStics as a WhOIe Can be divided into SeVeral SUbfieldS as following:1）General IingUiStiCS and descriptive IingUiStics2）SynChrOniC IingUiStiCS and diachronic IingUiStiCS3）TheOretiCal IingUiStiCS and applied IingUiStiCS4）MiCrOIingUiStics and macroIinguistics.2 EXPIain the three PrinCiPIeS by Wh

19、iCh the IingUiSt is guided: consistency, adequacy and SimPliCity1）COnSiStency means that there ShOUId be no COntradiCtiOnS between different PartS Of the theory and the description.2）AdeqUaCy means that the theory must be broad enough in SCOPe to Ofter SignifiCant generalizations.3）SimPliCity requir

20、es US to be as brief and economic as POSSibIe3. What are the sub-branches OflingUiStiCS Within the IangUage SyStem?Within the IangUage SyStem there are SiX sub-branches as following:1）Phonetics. 语音学 is a StUdy Of SPeeCh SOUndS Of all human languages.2）PhOnOIOgy.音位学 StUdieS about the SOUndS and SOUnd

21、 PatternS Of a SPeaker, S native language.3）MOrPhOIOgy形态学 StUdieS about how a WOrd is formed.4）SyntaX 句法学 StUdieS about Whether a SentenCe is grammatical Or not.5）SemantiCS 语义学 StUdieS about the meaning Oflanguage5 including meaning Of WOrdS and meaning Of sentences.6）Pragmatics.语用学 The SCOPe Oflang

22、uage:LingUiStiCS is referred to as a SCientifiC StUdy Oflanguage. The SCientifiC PrOCeSS OfIingUiStiC study:It involves four stages: COlIeCting data, forming a hypothesis,testing the hypothesis and drawing COnCIUSiOns.ChaPter 3 PhOnetiCS 语音学1. articulatory PhOnetiCS （发音语音学 ）The StUdy Of how SPeeCh O

23、rganS PrOdUCe the SOUndS is Called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic PhOnetiCS （声学语音学）The StUdy Ofthe PhySiCal PrOPertieS and Of the transmission Of SPeeCh SOUndS is Cailed acoustic PhOnetiCS3. auditory PhOnetiCS （听觉语音学 ）The StUdy Of the Way hearers PerCeiVe SPeeCh SOUndS is CalIed auditory PhOneti

24、CS 4. COnSOnant （丰甫音）COnSOnant is a SPeeCh SOUnd Where the air fo the IangUage is either COmPIeteIy blocked, Or PartialIy blocked, Or Where the OPening between the SPeeCh OrganS is SO narrow that the air escapes With audible friction.5. VOWel （元音）is defined as a SPeeCh SOUnd in WhiCh the air from th

25、e IUngS is not blocked in any Way and is PrOnOUnCed With VOCaI-COrd VibratiOm6. bilabiaIS （双唇音）BiIabiaIS means that COnSOnantS for WhiCh the flow Of air is StOPPed Or restricted by the two lips, p b m w7. aAricates （塞擦音）The SOUnd PrOdUCed by StOPPing the airstream and then immediately reIeaSing it S

26、IOWIy is CaIled aAricates. t AI Id Y tr dr8. glottis （声门）GIOttiS is the SPaCe between the VOCal cords.9 rounded VOWel （圆唇元音）ROUnded VOWel is defined as the VOWel SOUnd PrOnOUnCed by the IiPS forming a CirCUIar OPeningu: u OB O10. diphthongs （奴元音） DiPhthOngS are PrOdUCed by moving from One VOWei POSi

27、tiOn to another through intervening POSitiOnS.eiai Oi Quau11 triphthongs（三合元音）TriPhthOngS are those WhiCh are PrOdUCed by moving from One VOWel POSitiOn toanother and then rapidly and COntinUOUSIy to a third one. eiQai QOiQ Qu Qau Q12. IaX VOWelS （松元音）ACCOrding to distinction OflOng and ShOrt vowels

28、, VOWelS are CIaSSified tense VOWeIS and IaX VOWelS All the IOng VOWelS are tense VOWeIS but Of the ShOrt VOWelS JeJ is a tense VOWel as well, and the rest ShOrt VOWeIS are IaX VOWeIs.1. HOW are COnSOnantS CIaSSified in terms OfdifiCrent criteria?The COnSOnantS in EngliSh Can be described in terms O

29、ffoUr dimensions.1）The POSitiOn Ofthe SOft palate.2）The PreSenCe Or the absence Of VOCaI-COrd Vibration.3）The PIaCe OfartiCUIation.4）The manner Of articulation.2. HOW are VOWeiS ClaSSified in terms Of different criteria?VOWel SOUndS are differentiated by a number Of factors.1）The State Ofthe VeIUm2）

30、The POSitiOn Ofthe tongue 3）The OPenneSS Ofthe mouth4）The ShaPe Ofthe lips.5）The Iength Of the vowels.6）The tension Of the muscles at PharynX3. What are the three sub-branches Of phonetics? HOW do they dier from each other?PhOnetiCS has three sub-branches as following:1）ArtiCUIatOry PhOnetiCS is the

31、 StUdy OfhOW SPeeCh OrganS PrOdUCe the SOUndS is Called articulatory phonetics.2）ACOUStiC PhOnetiCS is the StUdy Of the PhySiCal PrOPertieS and Of the transmission Of SPeeCh SOUndS is Called acoustic PhOnetiCS3）AUditOry PhOnetiCS is the StUdy Of the Way hearers PerCeiVe SPeeChSOUndS is Called audito

32、ryPhOnetiCS 4. What are the COmmOnIy USed PhOnetiC features for COnSOnantS and VOWelS respectiveIy?L The frequently USed PhOnetiC features for COnSOnantS include the following:nVoiced.2）NaSaL3）COnSOnantaL4）VOCaIiC 5）COntinUant.6）Anterior.7) COrOnaL8) ASPirated IL The most COmmOn PhOnetiC features fo

33、r VOWeIS include the following:1)High.2)LOw.3)Front.4)Back.5)Rounded.6)Tense.ChaPter 4 PhOnOlOgy 音位学1. PhOnemeS （音位）PhOnemeS are minimal distinctive UnitS in the SOUnd SyStem Ofa language.2. allophones（音位变体）AilOPhOneS are the PhOnetiC VariantS and realizations Ofa PartiCUIar PhOneme3. PhOneS （单音）The

34、 SmalleSt identifiable PhOnetiC Unit found in a Stream Of SPeeCh is CaIled a PhOne4. minimal Pair（最小对立体 ）Minimal Pair means WOrdS WhiCh dier from each Other OnIy by One sound.5. COntraStiVedistribution （刘 比分希）Iftwo Or more SOUndS Can OCCUr in the Same environment and theSUbStitUtiOn Of One SOUnd for

35、 another brings about a Change Of meaning, they are Said to be in COntraStiVe distributio n.6. COmPIementary distribution（互补分布）IftWO Or more SOUndS never appear in the Same environment ,thenthey are Said to be in COmPIementary distribution7. free VariatiOn （自由变异）When two SOUndS Can appear in the Sam

36、e environment and the SUbStitUtiOn Of One for the Other does not CaUSe any Change in meaning, then they are Said to be in Iree Variation.8. distinctive features （区别性特征）AdiStinCtiVe feature is a feature WhiCh distinguishes One PhOneme from another 9. SUPraSegmental features （超切分特征）The distinctive （Ph

37、OnOIOgiCaI） features WhiCh apply to groups Iarger than the SingIe Segment are known as SUPraSegmental features.10. tone IangUageS（声调语言）TOne IangUageS are those WhiCh USe PitCh to COntraSt meaning at WOrd IeVe 1.11. intonation IangUageS （语调语言）IntOnatiOn IangUageS are those WhiCh USe PitCh to distingu

38、ish meaning at PhraSe IeVel Or SentenCe Ie Ve 1.12. juncture （连音）JUnCtUre refers to the PhOnetiC boundary features WhiCh may demarcate grammatical units.1. What are the dilTerences between EngIiSh PhOnetiCS and EngiiSh phonology?1）PhOnetiCS is the StUdy Of the production, PerCePtion, and PhySiCal Pr

39、OPertieS Of SPeeCh sounds, WhiIe PhOnOIOgy attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and COnVey meaning in PartiCUIar languages.2）PhOnetiCS is the StUdy Ofthe actual SOUndS WhiIe PhOnOIOgy is COnCerned With a more abstract description Of SPeeCh SOUndS and tries to describe the regula

40、rities Of SOUnd Patterns.2. GiVe examples to illustrate the reIatiOnShiP between phonemes, PhOneS and allophonesWhen We hear pit,tip,spit,etc, the Similar PhOneS We have heard are p. And p and b are SeParate PhOnemeS in English, WhiIe ph and p are allophones3. HOW Can We decide a minimal Pair Or a m

41、inimal set?A ITlinimaIPair ShOUId meet three COnditions:1）The two forms are different in meaning2）The two forms are different in One SOUnd segment.3）The difterent SOUndS OCCUr in the Same POSitiOn Ofthe two StringS4. USe examples to explain the three types Ofdistribution.1）COntraStiVe distribution .

42、 SOUndS m in met and n in net are in COntraStiVe distribution because SUbStitUting m for n Will result in a Change Of meaning.2）COmPIementary distribution . The aspirated PIOSiVe ph and the UnaSPirated PlOSiVe are in COmPIementary distribution because the former OCCUrS either initiaIly in a WOrd Or

43、initially in a StreSSedSylIabIe WhiIe the Iatter never OCCUrS in SUCh environments3）Free VariatiOn . In English, the WOrd“ direct ” may be PrOnOUnCe in two ways: di' rekt and diathe two difterent SOUndS i and ai Can be Said to be in free Variation.5. What, S the difference between Segmental feat

44、ures and SUPraSegmental features? What are the SUPraSegmental features in English?I. 1） DiStinCtiVe features, WhiCh are USed to distinguish One PhOneme from another and thus have effect On One SOUnd segment, are referred to as Segmentalfeatures.2）The distinctive （PhOnOIOgiCaI） features WhiCh apply t

45、o groups Iarger than the SingIe Segment are known as SUPraSegmental features.3）SUPraSegmental features may have effect On more than One SOUnd segment. They may apply to a String Of SeVeral SOUndS.The main SUPraSegmentaIfeatUreS include stress, tone, intonation and juncture6.What, S the difierence be

46、tween tone IangUageS and intonation language?TOne IangUageS are those WhiCh USe PitCh to COntraSt meaning at WOrd IeVeI WhiIe intonation IangUageS are those WhiCh USe PitCh to distinguish meaning at PhraSe IeVel Or SentenCe IeVel7 What, S the dirence between PhOnetiC transcriptions and PhOnemiC tran

47、scriptions?The former WaS meant to SymbOliZe all POSSibIe SPeeCh sounds, including even the most minute ShadeS Of PrOnUnCiation, While the Iatter WaS intended to indicate OnIy those SOUndS CaPabIe Of distinguishing One WOrd 6from another in a given language.ChaPter 5 MOrPhOlOgy 形态学1. morphemes （语素）M

48、OrPhemeS are the minimal ITleaningfUl UnitS in the grammatical SyStem Ofa IangUage allomorphs （语素变体）AlIOmOrPhS are the realizations Ofa PartiCUIar morpheme.morphs （形素）MOrPhS are the realizations Of morphemes in general and are the actual forms USed to realize morphemes 2. roots （词根）ROOtS is defined

49、as the most important Part Of a WOrd that CarrieS the PrinCiPal meaningaffixes （词缀）AffiXeS are morphemes that IeXiCally depend On roots and do not COnVey the fundamental meaning Of words.tree morphemes （自 由语素）Free morphemes are those WhiCh Can exist as individual WOrdSbound mohemes（粘着语素）BOUnd morphe

50、mes are those WhiCh CannOt OCCUr On their OWn as SeParatewords.3. inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）refer to affixes that SerVe to indicate grammatical reIations5 but do not Change its Part Of speech.derivational affixes （派生i司缀）refer to affixes that are added to WOrdS in Order to Change its grammatical Cat

51、egOry Or its meaning.4. empty morph（空语子）EmPty InOrPh means a morph WhiCh has form but no meaningZerO morph（零语子）ZerO morph refers to a morph WhiCh has meaning but no fbirn.5. IC AnaIySis（直接成分分析 ）IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a IingUiStiC expression （both a WOrd and aSentenCe） into a hierarch

52、ically defined SerieS Ofconstituents.6. immediate COnStitUentS （直接成分）A immediate COnStitUent is any One Ofthe IargeSt grammatical UnitS that COnStitUte a construction. Ilnmediate COnStitUentS are Often IUrther reducible.UItimate COnStitUentS （最后成） UItimate COnStitUentS are those grammatically irredu

53、cible UnitS that COnStitUte COnStrUCtiOns.7. morphological rules （形态学规贝IJ ） The PrinCiPIeS that determine how morphemes are COmbined into new WOrdS are Said to be morphological rules.8. WOrd-formation PrOCeSS （构 i 司法）WOrd-formation PrOCeSS ITlean the rule-governed PrOCeSSeS Of forming new WOrdS On t

54、he basis OfaIready existing IingUiStiC resources1. What is IC AnaIySis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a IingUiStic expression （both a WOrd and a SentenCe） into a hierarchically defined SerieS Ofconstituents.2. HOW are morphemes classified?1）SemantiCally SPeaking, morphemesare grouped into tw

55、o categories: root morphemes and affixationalmorphemes.2）StrUCtUrany SPeaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. EXPIain the interreIatiOnS between SemantiC and StrUCtUraICIaSSifiCatiOnS Of morphemesa）AIl tree morphemes are roots but not all roots are ITee morphe

56、mesb）AIl affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What, S the CIiflrence between an empty morph and a ZerO morph?a）EmPty morph means a morph that has form but no ITleaningb）Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. EXPIain the dierences between infle

57、ctional and derivational affixes in term Of both function and POSitiO n.a）Functionally:LInfleCtiOnal affixes SeVer to mark grammatical relations and never Create new WOrdS WhiIe derivational affixes Can Create new WOrdSHJnflectional affixes do not CaUSe a Change in grammatical CIaSS WhiIe derivational affixes Very Often but not always CaUSe a Change in grammatical class.b）In term OfPOSition:LlnfleCtiOnal affixes are SUffiXeS WhiIe derivational affixes Can be SUffiXeS Or prefixes.HJnflecti