语言学讲义-考研-6-Psycholinguistics

考研讲义6

PsycholinguisticsTeachingobjectives:

thelearnerswillbebetterabletoknowsomebasictheoriesinpsycholinguisticsandcognitivelinguistics.TeachingFocus:languageacquisition,languagecomprehension,languageproduction,categorizationandmetaphorTeachingMethodsandStrategies:

teacherpresentationandclassdiscussionChapter6LanguageandCognition

TeachingProcedures1.Cognition2.Psycholinguistics2.1Languageacquisition2.2Languagecomprehension2.3Languageproduction3.CognitiveLinguistics3.1Categorization3.2Metaphor3.3Metonymy4.Task1.WhatisCognition?Mentalprocesses,informationprocessingMentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.Theformalapproach（形式法）:structuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.Thepsychologicalapproach（心理学方法）:languagefromtheviewofgeneralsystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attention,andreasoning.Theconceptualapproach（认知法）:howlanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.2.PsycholinguisticsPsychologicalaspectsoflanguage.Psychologicalstatesandmentalactivitywiththeuseoflanguage.Languageacquisition,languageproduction&comprehension.Languageacquisition(L1/L2)LanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionLanguagedisordersLanguageandThoughtNeurocognitionSixsubjectsofresearch2.1LanguageAcquisition---Howlanguageisrepresentedinthemindandhowlanguageisacquired?(1)Holophrasticstage（单词句阶段）Language’ssoundpatternsPhoneticdistinctionsinparents’language.One-wordstage:objects,actions,motions,routines.(2)Two-wordstage:around18mChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeWantcookieIwantacookieRequestMoremilkIwantsomemoremilkRequestJoeseeI(Joe)seeyouInformingMycupThisismycupWarningMommychairThischairbelongstoMWarningBigboyIamabigboyBraggingRedcarThatcarisredNamingThatcarThatisacarNamingChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeNosleepIdon’twanttogotosleepRefusalNottiredIamnottiredRefusalWheredoll?Whereisthedoll?QuestionTrucktableThetruckisonthetableInformingDaddyrunDaddyisrunningInformingJoepushI(Joe)pushed(thecat)InformingPushcatIpushedthecarInformingGivecandyGivemethecandyRequest(3)Three-word-utterancestageGivedoggiepaper.Puttruckwindow.Tractorgofloor.(4)FluentgrammaticalconversationstageEmbedoneconstituentinsideanother:Givedoggiepaper.

Givebigdoggiepaper.Usemorefunctionwords:missingfunctionwordsandinflectioninthebeginningbutgooduse(90%)bytheageof3,withafullrangeofsentencetypes.Allpartsofalllanguageareacquiredbeforethechildturnsfour.2.2Languagecomprehension---Howdopeopleusetheirknowledgeoflanguage,andhowdotheyunderstandwhattheyhearorread?

Mentallexicon:informationaboutthepropertiesofwords,retrievablewhenunderstandinglanguage.Itincludeslinguisticknowledge:meaning,spelling,pronunciation,collocationoftheword.non-linguisticknowledge:encyclopedicknowledge,personalexperience,etc.Wordretrievalmodel(1)Wordrecognition1）Cohortmodel（群集模式）

2）

Interactivemodel（交互模式）3）

Racemodel（竞争模式）

1)Cohorttheory（集群理论）Marslen-Wilson&Welsh(1978,1980,1981,1990)Ithypothesizesthatauditorywordrecognitionbeginswiththeformationofagroupofwordsattheperceptionoftheinitialsoundandproceedssoundbysoundwiththecohortofwordsdecreasingasmoresoundsareperceived.eg.,Paulgotajobattheca-…Wordcandidates:candy,cash,candle,cashier,camp…2)Interactivemodel（交互模式）Theoreticalbasis:connectionism联结主义理论Interactiveactivation:

proposedbyRumelhart&

McClelland（1981）“交互作用模型”

这个模型假设语言的加工过程不仅包含自下而上的加工过程(bottom-upprocess)，也包含自上而下（top-downprocess）的过程。而且这两种过程可以在同一时间互相作用。eg:a)“小明和小张在切蛋糕”

b)word-superiorityeffect“词优效应”

2)Interactivemodel（交互理论）:Higherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,“top-down”influenceonlowerlevels.Lexicalknowledgecanaffecttheperceptionofphonemes.Thereisinteractivityintheformoflexicaleffectsontheperceptionofsub-lexicalunits.Incertaincases,listeners’knowledgeofwordscanleadtotheinhibitionofcertainphonemes;inothercases,listenerscontinueto“hear”phonemesthathavebeenremovedfromthespeechsignalandreplacedbynoise.3)Racemodel:Pre-lexicalroute:computesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignalLexicalroute:thephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessedWhenword-levelinformationappearstoaffectalower-levelprocess,itisassumedthatthelexicalroutewontherace.Factorsinvolvedinwordrecognition:Frequencyeffect（频率效应）:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageintheL.Recencyeffects（近期效应）:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrenceinthediscourseorcontext.Context:Werecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.Lexicalambiguity(词汇歧义)Allthemeaningsrelatedtothewordareaccessed获取.Onlyonemeaningisaccessedinitially.Areyouengaged?Myfrienddrovemetothebank.Theypassedtheportatmidnight.Pleasegivemeacamel.上课做手术Theclerk(entering):Areyouengaged?Augustus:Whatbusinessisthatofyours?However,ifyouwilltakethetroubletoreadthesocietypapersforthisweek,youwillseethatIamengagedtotheHonourableLucyPopham,youngestdaughterof...Theclerk:Thatisn’twhatImean.Canyouseeafemale?Augustus:Ofcourse,Icanseeafemaleaseasilyasamale.DoyousupposeIamblind?(GeorgeBernardShaw:AugustusDoesHisBit)(2)ComprehensionofsentencesSerialmodels(串行模式):

Processesthatoccuroneatatime.Thesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowsconstraintsofalanguage’sgrammar.Describehowtheprocessorquicklyconstructsoneormorerepresentationsofasentencebasedonarestrictedrangeofinformationthatisguaranteedtoberelevanttoitsinterpretation,primarilygrammaticalinformation.Anysuchrepresentationisthenquicklyinterpretedandevaluated,usingthefullrangeofinformationthatmightberelevant.Parallelmodels(并行模式):

Whentwoormoreprocessestakeplaceatthesametime.Theyemphasizethatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexical,andcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.Describehowtheprocessorusesallrelevantinformationtoquicklyevaluatethefullrangeofpossibleinterpretationsofasentence.Itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatlistenersandreadersintegrategrammaticalandsituationalknowledgeinunderstandingasentence.Comprehensionofwrittenandspokenlanguagecanbedifficultbecauseitisnotalwayseasytoidentifytheconstituents

(phrases)ofasentenceandthewaysinwhichtheyrelatetooneanother.

Psycholinguistshaveproposedprinciplesinterpretingsentencecomprehensionwithrespecttothegrammaticalconstraints.Structuralfactorsincomprehension

理解中的结构性因素Minimalattachment(最小接触理论):

the“structurallysimpler”--structuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.人们解释句子结构时，一开始构建的是最简（或者说最小复杂性）句法结构，这种观点叫做最少接触理论。Thesecondwifewillclaimtheinheritancebelongstoher.Gardenpathsentences花园小径句Oneinterestingphenomenonconcerningcertainambiguoussentencesiscalledthe“gardenpath”.

Thehorseracedpastthebarnfell.Themanwhohuntsducksoutonweekends.ThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.Fatpeopleeataccumulates.Gardenpathsentencesaresentencesthatareinitiallyinterpretedwithadifferentstructurethantheyactuallyhave.Ittypicallytakesquitealongtimetofigureoutwhattheotherstructureisifthefirstchoiceturnsouttobeincorrect.Sometimespeopleneverfigureitout.Theyhavebeen“ledupthegardenpath”,fooledintothinkingthesentencehasadifferentstructurethanithas.Reducedrelativeclausesquitefrequentlycausethisfeelingofhavingbeengarden-pathed.

花园小径句就是那些实际解释不同于我们一开始所想结构的句子。如果证明开始的选择是错误的，就要花相当长的一段时间来找出另外一种结构。有时甚至永远也找不出来，他们被“引到花园小径中去了，被”骗“去思索句子的另外一种结构，而非其表面上显示的。降级关系从句经常使人有这种走入花园小径的感觉。Lexicalfactorsincomprehension

Thehumansentenceprocessorisprimarilyguidedbyinformationaboutspecificwordsthatisstoredinthelexicon.Thesalesmanglancedata/thecustomerwithsuspicion/rippedjeans.Thesalesmanglancedatacustomerwithsuspicion;Thesalesmanglancedatthecustomerwithsuspicion;Thesalesmanglancedatacustomerwithrippedjeans;Thesalesmanglancedatthecustomerwithrippedjeans;Thesalesmanglancedatacustomer

withsuspicion.Thesalesmanglancedatacustomer

withrippedjeans.Thesalesmanglancedat

thecustomer

withsuspicion.Thesalesmanglancedat

thecustomer

withrippedjeans.SyntacticambiguityDifferentpossiblewaysinwhichwordscanbefitintophrases.Ambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.Johnpaintedthecarinthegarage.Maylikesthevaseonthecupboardwhichsheboughtyesterday.Thestudentswilldiscusstheirplantoholdadancingpartyintheclassroom.IknowSimonbetterthanyou.Tellmeifyouhavetime.Mybrotherwasn’treadingallthetime.ThechairmanappointedMr.Brownanassistant.Thescholarwrotelongthesisandbooks.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.(3)ComprehensionoftextResonancemodel共振模式:

informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.Discourseinterpretation

SchemataanddrawinginferencesSchema(图式):apre-existingknowledgestructureinmemorytypicallyinvolvingthenormalexpectedpatternsofthings.[RESTAURANT]Schema:Entering,ordering,eatingandexiting.EnteringScene:Thecustomerentersarestaurant,looksforatable,decideswheretosit,walkstothetable…Johnwentintoarestaurant.Heaskedthewaitressforcoqauvin.Heateit,paidthebillandleft.(perfectlyunderstandable)Johnwentintoarestaurant.Hesawawaitress.Hegotupandwenthome.(doesnotseemtomakesense)Apartmentforrent.$500.Istoppedtogetsomegroceriesbutthereweren'tanybasketsleftsobythetimeIarrivedatthecheck-outcounterImusthavelookedlikeajugglerhavingabadday.A:Wouldyoulikeacoffee? B:Yes,please. … B:Noandno. A:Right.一天，我在看中央三台的中国音乐电视。我正看得津津有味的时候，老妈回来了说：“这是谁啊？”当时正是龙宽九段在唱歌。我就说：“龙宽九段。”这时，老妈一本正经的问：“九段？下围棋的啊？她还能唱歌啊？”Pragmaticambiguity(语用歧义)Thereisaflyinmysoup.TodayisSunday.“Doyouenjoysittingbesideme?”sheaskedcoldly.“Oh,no,”Isaid.“Well,youarenotwantedhere.” (W.E.B.DuBois,“OnBeingCrazy”)2.3Languageproduction---Howdotheyproducemessagethatotherscanunderstandinturn?TwoformsoflanguageproductionSpeechproductionWriting2.3.1Speechproduction(1)AccesstowordsConceptualization:whattoexpressWordselection:acompetitiveprocessMorpho-phonologicalencoding:targetwords(2)GenerationofsentencesConceptualpreparation:decidingwhattosay–aglobalplanisneededWordretrieval词汇检索andapplicationofsyntacticknowledge2processesofsentencegenerationFunctionalplanning:assigninggrammaticalfunctionsPositionalencoding:gettingintopositionsforeachunitSimilartospokenlanguage.Orthographicforminsteadofphonologicalform.However,phonologyplaysanimportantroleinthisprocess.Writershavemoretimeavailableforconceptualpreparationandplanning.2.3.2Writtenlanguageproduction3.CognitiveLinguisticsCognitionisthewaywethink.Cognitivelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.Itisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.ThreemainapproachesTheExperientialView经验观TheProminenceView凸显观TheAttentionalView注意观ExperientialviewCar:

abox-likeshape,wheels,doors,windows

comfort,speed,mobility,independence,socialstatusProminenceviewTheselectionandarrangementoftheinformationthatisexpressed.Thecarcrashedintothetree.Thetreeishitbythecar.AttentionalviewWhatweactuallyexpressreflectswhichpartsofaneventattractourattention.Thecarcrashedintothetree.Howthecarstartedtoswerve;Howitskiddedacrosstheroad;Howitrumbledontotheverge.3.1Construal(识解)Construal:theabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationindifferentways1.Attention/salience(注意力／突显)Weactivatethemostrelevantconceptsmorethanconceptsthatareirrelevanttowhatwearethinkingabout.Wedrovealongtheroad.Sheranacrosstheroad.Theworkersdugthroughtheroad.2.Judgment/Comparison(判断和对比),Figure/Ground

（图形和背景）Wecannotattendtoallfacetsofasceneatthesametime.

Wecannotpayattentiontoeverything.Instead,wefocusoneventsofparticularsalience.Figure-groundorganization

Thegroundseemstobeplacedbehindthefigureextendinginthebackground.Thefigureisthusmoreprominent,orevenmoreinteresting,thantheground.Figure-groundreversalFigure-groundalsoseemstoapplytoourperceptionofmovingobjects.Inordertodistinguishbetweenstationaryanddynamicfigure-groundrelations,somecognitivelinguists(egRonaldLangacker)usethetermtrajector（射体）foramovingfigureandlandmark（路标）

forthegroundofamovingfigure.There’sacat[figure]onthemat[ground].Therearestillsomepeanuts[figure]inthebag[ground].Batman[figure]wasstandingontheroof[ground].Thecomputer[figure]underthetable[ground]ismine.Thespacecraft[figure]washoveringoverMetropolis[ground].Tarzan[trajector]jumpedintotheriver[landmark].Spiderman[trajector]climbedupthewall[landmark].Thebird[trajector]wingeditswayoutthewindow[landmark].We[trajector]wentacrossthefield[landmark].I[trajector]’mgoingtoLondon[landmark].3.Perspective视角

generallydependsontwothings.wherewearesituatedinrelationtothescenewe'reviewing.howthesceneisarrangedinrelationtooursituatedness（位置）.Themanisinfrontofthetree.Thetreeisbehindtheman.Thetreeisinfrontoftheman.Themanisbehindthetree.3.2Categorization（范畴化）Theprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.AmajoringredientinthecreationofhumanknowledgeAllowsustorelatepresentexperiencestopastonesThreelevels:basiclevel（基本层次）superordinatelevel（上义层次）subordinatelevel（下义层次）.原型理论Prototypes：thebestexamplesofacategory作用原形范畴的特点：成员之间享有家族相似性成员之间的地位不是平等的，具有中心成员和边缘成员之分行为&事件范畴含义也符合原型理论例子：lie&whitelie也包含三个层次例子：move-walk-limp，hobble，amble，wander例子：meal-breakfast-fastbreakfast3.3ImageSchema（意象图式）Johnson,Mark.1987.Thebodyinthemind:Thebodilybasisofmeaning,imagination,andreason.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Animage-schemaisa“skeletal”mentalrepresentationofarecurrentpatternofembodied(especiallyspatialorkinesthetic)experience.意象图式是在对事物之间基本关系的认知的基础上所构成的认知结构Theyarehighlyschematicrepresentationsofperceptuallygroundedexperience.Theyemergefromourembodiedinteractionswiththeworld.世界认知的两个层面事物认识事物范畴其关系认识其关系意象图式（1）Center-peripheryschema

(中心－边缘图式)Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore.Examples(English):ThestructureofanappleAnindividual’sperceptualsphereAnindividual’ssocialsphere,withfamilyandfriendsatthecoreandothershavingdegreesofperipherality

Center-peripheryschema---来自人对人体生理的感受。它的生理和物质基础在于人体具有中心（躯体和内脏器官）和边缘（手指、脚趾、头发等）；同样，树木和植物有树干、树枝、树叶。中心是重要的；边缘是不重要的，边缘依赖中心而存在。这些体验和感受被投射到其他经验域，形成了中心边缘图示隐喻。eg:a.Beijingisthepoliticalcenterofourcountry.b.There’snoneedtosplithairsovertheexactcostofthehouse.c.Hecasuallyleafedthroughthebook.

（2）Containmentschema

（容器图式）Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalboundaryenclosedareaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.Bodilyexperience:humanbodiesascontainers.Structuralelements:interior,boundary,exteriorBasiclogic:ForallA,X,eitherIN(X,A)ornot.ForallA,B,X,ifCONTAINER(A)andCONTAINER(B)andIN(A,B)andIN(X,A),thenIN(X,B).

Theshipiscomingintoview.She’sdeepinthought.Westoodinsilence.Containmentschema（容器图式）eg:a.Itakeoutabottleofmilkfromtherefrigerator.b.Ipourthemilkoutofthebottle.c.Shewalkedintotheroom.以上例句都与“容器”有关。我把钱装进口袋这个“容器”，走出银行这个“容器”，再进入另一个“容器”轿车。经过无数次“容器”的经验，我们头脑中就会形成一个“容器”的意象图式。（3）Cycleschema

（循环图式）Involvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.Itsstructureincludesthefollowing:AstartingpointAprogressionthroughsuccessiveeventswithoutbacktrackingAreturntotheinitialstateTheschemaoftenhassuperimposedonitastructurethatbuildstowardaclimaxandthengoesthroughareleaseordecline.Examples(English)DaysWeeksYearsSleepingandwakingBreathingCirculationEmotionalbuildupandrelease（4）End-of-pathschema

Animageschemainwhichalocationisunderstoodastheterminationofaprescribedpath.Example(English):Inthefollowingsentence,itisunderstoodthatonemusttraversethehillbeforereachingSam’shome,whichisattheendofthepath:Samlivesoverthehill.

想象移动物体走过的路径，之后注意力集中在物体停止的地方。例如：观察足球运动员踢入球门内，并停在那里。（5）Forceschema

（力图式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.Itincludesthefollowingelements:AsourceandtargetoftheforceAdirectionandintensityoftheforceApathofmotionofthesourceand/ortargetAsequenceofcausationExamples(English):Physical:Wind,GravityStructuralelements:force,path,entity,etc.Interaction,directionality,causalityCompulsionBlockageCounterforceDiversionRemovalofrestraint（6）Linkschema（连接图式）Consistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andthebondbetweenthem.

EntityA EntityBExamples(English):Achildholdinghermother’shandSomeonepluggingalampintothewallAcausal“connection”Kinship“ties”

连接图式形成的生物和物质基础是人的第一连接物是脐带。脐带是两个生命体的连接，因此，人们把社交和人际关系看成是一种连接关系，这种连接关系维系了个体与社会、社会与社会、个体与个体的关系。这种关系也是建构隐喻的源泉。eg:a.Marriageisachainb.Thepassedlawwillbreakthesocialties.c.Slaveryisfettersandmanacles.

（7）

Part-wholeschema

（部分整体图式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.Examples(English):Physical:ThebodyanditspartsMetaphorical:Thefamily; ThecastestructureofIndiaPart-wholeschema

（部分整体图式）

部分-整体图式形成的生理和物质基础是人本身以及其他物体是由部分组成的整体。在此图示中，只有部分存在于同一结构中才构成整体。人的经验将家庭及其他社会团体视为由部分组成的整体，离婚被视为“解体”（splittingup）。在印度，社会被看做由等级组成的整体---最高级为“首”（head），最低级为“脚”（feet），等级制度参照人体结构来理解和表达。eg:a.WhotoldyouthatMaryandIhadsplitup?b.Heistheheadofourdepartment.（8）

Pathschema（路径图式）Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.Examples(English):Physical:Paths;TrajectoriesMetaphorical:Thepurpose-as-physical-goalmetaphor,asexpressedinthefollowingsentences:Tomhasgonealongwaytowardchanginghispersonality.Youhavereachedthemidpointofyourflighttraining.She'sjuststartingouttomakeherfortune.Janewassidetrackedinhersearchforself-understanding.（9）

Scaleschema

（等级图式）Involvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamount,andconsistsofanyofthefollowing:Aclosed-oropen-endedprogressionofamountApositionintheprogressionofamountOneormorenormsofamountAcalibrationofamount

Examples:PhysicalamountsPropertiesinthenumbersystemEconomicentitiessuchassupplyanddemand（10）Verticalityschema（上下图式）Involves“up”and“down”relations.Examples:StandinguprightClimbingstairsViewingaflagpoleWatchingwaterriseinatubVerticalityschema（上下图式）

研究表明，“上-下（up-down）”概念在最初形成阶段都是纯空间概念。然而，经过人类多年的使用和发展，“上-下（up-down）”概念从原有的空间意义中拓展出丰富的隐喻意义。

“上-下（up-down）”图式的形成有其生理和物质基础，人是直立行走的动物，头在上，脚在下；人和多数哺乳动物睡觉时躺下，醒后站立起来，正常人以站姿和坐姿完成日常生活的绝大部分内容；人死后均倒下。由于有这样的体验和感受，人类把这种体验和感受投射到其他目标域，形成“上-下（up-down）”图式隐喻，因此人类得出了Goodisup,badisdown.Happyisup,sadisdown.这一隐喻图式。eg:a.I’mfeelinguptoday.b.Hecamedownwithflu.c.如果他当上书记，很可能是造福百姓的好书记。3.4Metaphor（隐喻）GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson(1980).MetaphorsWeLiveBy.UniversityofChicagoPress.ConceptualMetaphorTheory

(概念隐喻理论)Metaphorsareactuallycognitivetoolsthathelpusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheworldaroundus.Metaphorisaconceptualmapping（概念映射）,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother（从一个语域到另一个语域）,notfromawordtoanother.类型---常规隐喻含义：指隐喻意义已成为词汇的部分含义，已收入辞典中，成为约定俗成的字面含义。类型实体隐喻ontologicalmetaphor结构隐喻StructuralMetaphor

方位隐喻OrientationalMetaphor含义：人们将抽象的和模糊的思想，感情，心理活动，事件，状态等无形的概念看做是具体的，有形的实体，因而可以对其进行谈论，量化，识别其特征及原因等。Targetdomain（目标域）-whatisactuallybeingtalkedabout.Sourcedomain（源域）-thedomainusedasabasisforunderstandingtargetOntologicalcorrespondence（本体对应）Epistemiccorrespondence（认知对应）

Targetdomain SourcedomainRATIONALARGUMENTWAR

1）OntologicalMetaphor(实体隐喻)Theepistemiccorrespondence(认知对应)Example:LIFEISAJOURNEYOntologicalcorrespondence（本体对应）source:JOURNEYtarget:LIFESTARTINGPOINTBIRTHTRAVELERPERSONPATHAGINGDESTINATIONDEATHOBSTACLESPROBLEMSINLIFECROSSROADSCHOICESEpistemiccorrespondence

(认知对应)TRAVELERLEAVESSTARTINGPOINTPERSONISBORNTRAVELERTRAVELSALONGPATHPERSONAGESTRAVELERFACESACROSSROADPERSONMUSTTAKEACHOICETRAVELERFACESANOBSTACLEPERSONHADPROBLEMSINLIFETRAVELERREACHESDESTINATIONPERSONDIES2）StructuralMetaphor

(结构隐喻)含义：指以一种概念的结构来构造另一种概念，使两种概念相叠加，使谈论一种概念的各方面的词语用于谈论另一概念。

Providesrichhighlystructured,clearlydelineatedsourcedomaintostructuretargetdomain.Thenatureofthemapping:

Themappinginvolvestwotypesofcorrespondencebetweentargetandsourcedomain,whicharebothgroundedinourexperiencesintheworld.Example:ARGUMENTISWAR:Yourclaimsareindefensible.Heattackedeveryweakpointinmyargument.Hiscriticismswererightontarget.Idemolishedhisargument.I’veneverwonanargumentwithhim.Youdisagree?OK,shoot!Ifyouusethatstrategy,he’llwipeyouout.Heshotdownallofmyarguments.3）OrientationalMetaphor

(方位隐喻)含义：指参照空间方位而组建的一系列隐喻概念。GivesaconceptaspatialorientationCharacterizedbyaco-occurrenceinourexperienceGroundedinanexperientialbasis,whichlinktogetherthetwopartsofthemetaphorThelinkverb“is”,partofthemetaphor,shouldbeseenasthelinkoftwodifferentco-occurringexperiences.Forexample,MOREISUPThestockpriceskeeprisingthesedays.Thenumberoferrshemadeisincrediblylow.科学技术使农业生产逐年提高。

Thismetaphorisgroundedintheco-occurrenceoftwodifferentkindsofexperiences:addingmoreofasubstance,andperceivingthelevelofthesubstancerise.Examples:HAPPYISUP;SADISDOWNThatboostedmyspirits.I’mfeelingdown.I’mdepressed.CONSCIOUSISUP;UNCONSCIOUSISDOWNWakeup.Hefellasleep.He’sunderhypnosis.3.5Metonymy（换喻，转喻）Itisacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicle（源域）,providesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget（目标域）,withinthesamedomain.Thereferencepointactivatesthetarget.Itismodeledasidealizedcognitivemodels(ICMs)byLakoff(1987),conceptualmappingsbyRadden&Kovecses(1999),domainhighlightingbyCroft(2002),combinationsofmappingsandhighlightingbyRuizdeMendoza(2000),scenariosbyPanther&Thornburg(1999)andmoregenerallyasreference-pointactivationbyLangacker(1999)andBarcelona(2000).Onthebasisoftheontologicalrealms,wemaydistinguishthreecategories:theworldof“concept”theworldof“form”theworldof“things”and“events”Theyroughlycorrespondtothethreeentitiesthatcomprisethewell-knownsemantictriangle.TheinterrelationsbetweenentitiesofthesameorfromdifferentontologicalrealmsleadtovariousICMsandpossibilitiesformetonymy.Thus,wehavethreeICMsinontologicalrealms:SignICMs,ReferenceICMsandConceptICMs.

Twogeneralconceptualconfigurations:wholeICManditspart(s)partsofanICM.(1)WholeICManditspart(s)(i)Thing-and-PartICM,whichmayleadtotwometonymicvariants:WHOLETHINGFORAPARTORTHETHING:Americafor“UnitedStates”PARTOFATHNGFORTHEWHOLETHING:Englandfor“GreatBritain”(ii)ScaleICM.Scalesareaspecialclassofthingsandthescalarunitsarepartsofthem.Typically,ascaleasawholeisusedforitsupperendandtheupperendofascaleisusedtostandforthescaleasawhole:WHOLESCALEFORUPPERENDOFTHESCALE:Henryisspeedingagainfor“Henryisgoingtoofast.”UPPERENDOFASCALEFORWHOLESCALE:Howoldareyou?for“whatisyourage?”(iii)ConstitutionICM.Itinvolvesmatter,materialorsubstanceswhichareseenasconstitutingathing.OBJECTFORMATERIALCONSTITUTINGTHEOBJECT:Ismellskunk.MATERIALCONSTITUTINGANOBJECTFORTHEOBJECT:woodfor“forest”

；我喜欢纯棉。(iv)EventICM.Eventsmaybemetaphoricallyviewedasthingswhichmayhaveparts.WHOLEEVENTFORSUBEVENT:Billsmokedmarijuana.SUBEVENTFORWHOLEEVENT:MaryspeaksSpanish.(v)Category-and-MemberICM.Acategoryanditsmembersstandinakindofrelation.CATEGORYFORAMEMBEROFTHECATEGORY:thepillfor“birthcontrolpill”MEMBEROF