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TopicWeightingsinFRMPartⅠ
SessionNO.
Content
Weightings
StudySession1
FoundationsofRiskManagement
20
StudySession2
QuantitativeAnalysis
20
StudySession3
FinancialMarketsandProducts
30
StudySession4
ValuationandRiskModels
30
Framework
BondMarket
InterestRates
TreasuryMarketandCorporateBond
DerivativesMarket
IntroductionofDerivativesMarket
ForwardandFutures
Swaps
OptionsMarkets
MBS
FinancialInstitutions
Bank
Insurance
FundManagement
BondMarket
Topic1:InterestRates
MarketRate
Compounding
SpotRateandForwardRate
TermStructure
TreasuryRates
TheratesaninvestorearnsonTreasurybillsandTreasurybonds.
Treasuryratesarerisk-freeratesinthesensethatitisconsideredhighlyunlikelythatthegovernmentofadevelopedcountrywilldefaultondebtissuedinitsowncurrency。
LIBOR
LIBORarecompiledfromtheestimatedunsecuredborrowingcostsof18highlyratedglobalbanks.
SOFR
ThereareplanstobeginphasingoutLiborandreplaceitwitharatebasedonactualtransactions。U.S.hasproposedtheuseoftherepo-basedSecuredOvernightFinancingRate(SOFR)
RepoRates
Inarepurchaseagreement,thedifferencebetweensellingprice(today)andtherepurchasedprice(tomorroworlater)iscalledthereporate.
Risk-FreeRate
Therisk-freerateatwhichderivativesarepricedisdeterminedfromovernightinterbankratesusingovernightindexedswaps.TheTreasuryrateisusuallynotadopted,becauseitisusuallyartificiallylow,mainlyduetothefollowingtworeasons:
RegulationgenerallydoesnotrequireBankstoretaincapitalfortheirTreasurypositions.
Insomecountries(suchastheUnitedStates),Treasuryyieldsgetpreferentialtaxtreatment.
Compounding
CompoundingFrequencies
Supposewehaveanaccountwherethesimpleinterestisaddedineachyearandthenthatmoneyalsoearnsinterest.
Assuming
RCistherateofinterestwithcontinuouscompounding.
Rmistherateofinterestwithdiscretecompounding(mperannum)
Tisthenumberofyears.
FV=PV 1+m
PV 1+R1
=PV 1+R2
SpotRate
At-periodspotrate,orzerorate,istheinterestrateearnedwhencashisreceivedatjustonefuturetime.
DeterminingZeroRateswithBootstrapMethod
Workingforwardandfittingthezeroratestoprogressivelylongermaturityinstruments.Theothercouponscanbedeterminedbyinterpolationfromtheratesthathavealreadybeendetermined.
Example:Giventhe0.5,1.0and1.5yearszerorateare2.0%,2.3%,2.5%respectively,the2yearzerorateofa2yearbondwithaparvalueof
$100andamarketvalueof$98.82whichpays(semi-annual)couponattherateof2%peryearcanbecalculatedasfollows:
1
+
1+0.02/2
1 1 101
1+0.023/2
1+R/2
+ + =98.82
Forwardrates
1+R1
1+F
1+R2
=eR2T2→F=R2T2−R1T1
T2−T1
Interestratescorrespondingtoafutureperiodimpliedbythespotcurve.
ParRate
Let'ssaythereisabondwithamaturityofTyears.Whenthecouponis0,thisisazerocouponbond.Thisbondisissuedatadiscount.Ifthecouponrategoesup,thevalueofthebondgoesup.Andwhenthecouponrateisatsomeparticularvalue,thevalueofthebondisexactlyequaltotheparvalue,whichiscalledtheparrate.
SpotRatesandForwardRates
Maturity(year)
SpotRate
ForwardRate
0.5
0.94%
0.94%
1
1.37%
1.79%
1.5
1.82%
2.73%
2
2.51%
4.58%
2.5
3.08%
5.37%
3
3.87%
7.87%
9.00%
8.00%
Forwardrate
7.00%
6.00%
5.00%
4.00%
3.00%
2.00%
1.00%
0.00%
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Maturity(year)
1+
0.94%
2
1+
2
F0.5,1
2
1.37%
2
= 1+
F0.5,1=1.79%
MajorTheoriesoftheTermStructureofInterestRates
ExpectationsTheory
Expectationstheoryarguesthattheinterestratetermstructurereflectswherethemarketisexpectinginterestratestobeinthefuture.
Ifthemarketexpectsinterestratestorise,thetermstructurewillbeupward-sloping,thatis,long-maturityratesbeinghigherthanshort-maturityinterestrates.
Ifthemarketexpectsinterestratestodecline,thenthetermstructurewillbedownward-sloping,thatis,long-maturityratesbeinglowerthanshort-maturityrates.
Inreality,theexpectationstheoryfailstoexplainwhytheinterestrate
curveisusuallyupwardsloping.
MajorTheoriesoftheTermStructureofInterestRates
MarketSegmentationTheory
Thebondmarketissegmentedintodifferentmaturitysectors;supplyanddemanddeterminethebondpricesorinterestrates.
LiquidityPreferenceTheory
Liquiditypreferencetheoryarguesthatmostentitiesliketoborrowlongandlendshort.Thistheoryisconsistentwiththeempiricalresultthatyieldcurvestendtobeupwardslopingmoreoftenthandownwardsloping.
Abankusesacontinuously-compoundedannualinterestrateof5%inoneofitsriskmodels.Whatistheequivalentinterestratethebankshoulduseifitconvertstosemi-annualcompoundinginthemodel?
4.94%
5%
5.06%
5.12%
CorrectAnswer:C
Assumethatthecontinuouslycompounded10-yearspotrateis5%andthe9-yearspotrateis4.9%.Whichofthefollowingisclosesttothe1-yearforwardratenineyearsfromnow?
4.1%.
5.1%.
5.9%.
6.0%.
CorrectAnswer:C
BondMarket
Topic2:TreasuryMarket
IntroductionofBondMarkets
TreasuryInstruments
Whatisabond?
Issuer/Borrower
Bonds
Indenture Bondholder/Lender/Investor
Money
CharacteristicsofBonds
CouponRate
FaceValue
Maturity
YieldtoMaturity(YTM)
AnnuityandPerpetualBond
Howtodeterminethepriceofabond?
Principle
P= C1 C2 +⋯+ CT
T
=� Ct
+
1+y (1+y)2
(1+y)T
(1+y)t
t=1
WhereCt=thecashflow(couponorprincipal)inperiodt
t=numberofperiodstoeachpayment(e.g.,halfyears;aquarteryears)
T=thenumberofperiodstomaturity
y=thediscountingrateperperiod
TreasuryBills
Ashort-termdebtobligationwithamaturityofoneyearorless.
Interestrateisexpressedonadiscountbasis.
TreasuryNotesandTreasuryBonds
Bondwithamaturityofmorethanoneyear.BondswhichtypicallyhavematuritiesbetweenonetotenyearsarecalledTreasuryNotes.Buttokeeptheterminologysimple,wewillrefertoallcoupon-bearingTreasuryinstrumentsasTreasuryBonds.
Bothmakeinterestpaymentssemi-annually.
QuotedPrice:
Dollarsandthirty-secondsofadollarwithfacevalueof$100
TreasurySTRIPS
C-StripsandP-Strips
CleanPriceandDirtyPrice
CleanPrice
Thepriceofacouponbondnotincludinganyaccruedinterest.Immediatelyfollowingeachcouponpayment,thecleanpricewillequalthedirtyprice.
DirtyPrice
Abondpricingquotereferringtothepriceofacouponbondthatincludesthepresentvalueofallfuturecashflows,includinginterestaccruingonthenextcouponpayment.
dirtyprice=cleanprice+accruedinterest
AccruedInterestandDayCountConventions
Treasurybonds:actual/actual
Corporateandmunicipalbonds:30/360
Moneymarketinstruments(Treasurybills):actual/360
Example
Supposea1000parvalueUScorporatebondpaysasemi-annual10percentcoupononJanuary1andJuly1.AssumethatitisnowApril1,2005,andthebondmaturesonJuly1,2015.Computetheinvoice(full)priceofthisbondiftherequiredannualyieldis8percent.Computetheflat(clean)priceoftheabovebond.
Time
Mar1st
Apr1st
May1st
June1st
July1st
dirtyprice
1155.30
1162.87
1170.50
1178.18
1185.90
cleanprice
1138.63
1137.87
1137.17
1136.51
1135.90
Exercise1
Assumeacorporatebondwithafacevalueof$1,000thatpaysasemi-annualcoupon(couponspayJanuaryandJuly1st)witha12.0%couponrate.ThebondsettlesonJune13th,2014andmatures,more
thansixyearslater,onJuly1st,2020.Atthecurrenttradedprice,thebond'syield(YTM)is10.0%.Whichisnearesttothebond'squoted(aka,clean)price?
$975
$1,089
$1,107
$1,143
CorrectAnswer:B
BondMarket
Topic3:CorporateBond
BondTrading
BondIndentures
ClassificationofBonds
BondRisk
DebtRetirement
BondTrading
TradingCharacteristic
BondsIssuedviaPrivatePlacements
Heldbytheoriginalpurchasersuntilmaturity.
Areoftennottraded.
BondIssuedinaPublicOffering
Typicallytradedintheover-the-countermarket.
BondYield
Thereturnearnedonabondoveritslifetimeassumingallinterestandprincipalarepaidaspromised.
Composedofarisk-freereturnandacreditspread.
Partoftheyieldmaybecompensationforliquidityrisk.Asliquiditydeclines,investorsrequireagreateryield.
BondIndentures
BondIndenture
Contractcontainscorporatebondissuerpromisesandinvestors’rights.
Madeouttocorporatetrustee,whorepresentsbondholders’interests.
CorporateTrustee
Afinancialinstitutionthatlooksaftertheinterestsofthebondholdersandensuresthattheissuercomplieswiththeindentures.
Itsdutiesarespecifiedintheindenturesandthetrusteeisundernoobligationtoexceedthoseduties.
Forexample,sometimestheindenturespecifiedthattrusteecanrelyontheissuerforinformation,sothat,itisnotrequiredtoconductitsowninvestigations.
InterestRate
Fixed-RateBonds
Floating-RateBonds
Zero-CouponBonds
IntheUnitedStates,holdersofcoupon-bearingbondscanclaimtheprincipalintheeventoftheissuer'sbankruptcy,whereasholdersofzero-couponbondscanclaimtheinitialpurchasepriceplusaccruedinterest.
Collateral
MortgageBonds
CollateralTrustBonds
EquipmentTrustCertificates
DebentureBonds(includingSubordinatedDebentures)
GuaranteedBonds
High-YieldBond
High-yieldbondsarethoseratedbelowinvestmentgradebytheratingsagencies,theseissuesarealsoknownasjunkbonds.
TypesofHigh-YieldBondIssuers
OriginalIssuers
FallenAngels
RestructuringsandLeverageBuyouts
PaymentFeatures
Deferred-InterestBonds
Step-UpBonds
Payment-in-Kind(PIK)Bonds
ExtendableResetBonds
BondRisk
EventRisk
Therearemanyeventsinthemarketthatcanadverselyaffectbonds,suchasnaturaldisasters.Thistypeofriskiscalledeventrisk.Oneimportanttypeofeventriskistheriskofalargeincreaseinleverage.
CreditRisk
CreditDefaultRisk:Riskthatabondissuerwillbeunabletomeetitsfinancialobligations.
CreditSpreadRisk:Riskoffinanciallossresultingfromchangesinthelevelofcreditspreads.
RiskMetrics
IssuerDefaultRatevs.DollarDefaultRate
RecoveryRate
ExpectedReturn:Risk−FreeRate+CreditSpread−ExpectedLossRate
DebtRetirement
CorporateBondRetirements
Frequently,bondsareretiredearly,beforematurity.Thereareseveralmechanismsbywhichacorporationmaygoaboutretiringtheirdebt:
Callprovision
Sinking-fundprovisions
Maintenanceandreplacementfunds
Tenderoffers
Aportfoliomanagerhasrecentlypurchaseda10-yearinvestment-gradecorporatebond.Whichofthefollowingtasksmusttypicallybeperformedbythecorporatetrusteelistedinthebond’sindenture?
Actinafiduciarycapacityforthebondissuer.
Ensurethatthebondissuer’sreportedfinancialratiosmeettherequirementsintheindenture.
Changethetermsoftheindenturetoprovideprotectionforthebondpurchaser.
Monitor the bond issuer’s balance sheet to ensure covenantcompliance.
CorrectAnswer:B
Whichbondinstrumentswouldhavethelowestrisk, asotherthingsbeingequal?
Juniortranches.
Equitytranches.
ETCs.
Debentures.
CorrectAnswer:C
Derivatives Market
Topic1:IntroductionofDerivativesMarket
IntroductionofDerivatives
BroadCategoriesofTraders
OTCandExchangeMarket
CentralCounterparty
Derivatives
Aninstrumentwhosevaluedependsonthevaluesofothermorebasicunderlyingassets.
BasicTypesofDerivatives
ForwardandFutures
Agreementtobuy/sellassetatfuturetimeforcertainprice.
Forward:tradedintheover-the-counter(OTC)market.
Futures:Standardizedandtradesonanexchange.
Swap
Aseriesofforwardcontracts.
Exchangecashflowsonperiodsettlementdates.
Option
Givesholdertheright(butnotobligation)tobuy/sellatacertainprice.
LinearandNon-LinearDerivatives
Derivativescanbedividedintolinearandnonlinearcategories.
Thepayoffoflinearderivativesislinearlyrelatedtothevalueoftheunderlyingassets.Forexample,forwardcontractsarelinearderivatives.
Options,ontheotherhand,arenonlinearderivatives,thatis,thereisanon-linearrelationshipbetweenthepayoffoftheoptionandthevalueoftheunderlyingasset.
DerivativesRisks
Speculatorscanobtainleverageinderivativestrading,whichmeanstradersarevulnerabletosignificantrisks.
Andtherewardsforsuccessfulspeculationaresohighthatmanytradersaretemptedtostartspeculating,eveniftheystartedouthedgingorlookingforarbitrageopportunities.Ifcontrolsarenotinplace,thesetradersmaystartspeculatingwithouttheknowledgeofothersintheorganization.
Inaddition,whenspeculativetraderslosemoney,theymayseektooffsettheirlossesbytakingincreasinglylargeandriskypositions.Ifoffsetgainsdonotmaterialize,tradersmayincreasetheirriskuntillossesreachcatastrophiclevels.
BroadCategoriesofTraders
Hedgers
Usederivativesmarketstooffsettheriskofpricesmovingunfavorablyfortheirongoingbusinessactivities.
Speculators
Usederivativestoseekprofitsbybettingonthefuturedirectionofmarketpricesoftheunderlyingasset.
Arbitrageurs
Usederivativestotakeoffsettingpositionsintwoormoreinstrumentstolockinaprofit.
MarketMaker
Amarketmakerisafirmfacilitatethetradingofaparticularsecuritytokeepthefinancialmarketliquidbyprovidingbuyandsellquotationssimultaneously.
Over-the-CounterandExchangeTraded
Over-the-Counter
Exchange-Traded
Customized
Standardized
Tradewithcounterparty(DefaultRisk)
Backedbyaclearinghouse
Nottradeinacentrallocation
Tradeinaphysicalexchange
Unregulated
Regulated
Tradingvolume:large
Tradingvolume:small
ExchangeMarket
Anexchangemarketisamarketwhereinvestorstradestandardizedcontractsmadebyexchanges.
Today,exchangesclearalltradesbetweenmembersthroughso-called
centralcounterparties(CCPs).
Exchanges(throughtheirCCPS)actascounterpartiestoallmembers.
AnotheradvantageofusingaCCPisthatitiseasierforexchangememberstocloseoutpositions.
Anothermeasuretoprotectmembersfromlossesisnetting.Nettingisanoperationinwhichshortandlongpositionsinaparticularcontractcanoffseteachother.
ExchangeMarket
Theexchangerequiresmemberstoprotectthemselvesbyprovidingmargin.Marginreferstothecashorassetstransferredfromonetradertoanotherforprotectionagainstcounterpartydefault.
VariationMargin
InitialMargin
Inaddition,membersarerequiredtosubmitadefaultfundasalossprotection.
Iftheinitialmarginisnotsufficienttocoveramember'slossesduringadefault,themember'sdefaultfundcontributionswillbeusedtocoverthedifference.Ifthesefundsremaininsufficient,theyarereplenishedbythedefaultfundsofothermembers.
VariationMargin
Tradesmadeonanexchangearenotsettledatmaturity.Instead,itmarkstomarketdaybyday.
Eachday,thelosingmemberpaystheexchangeCCPanamountequaltotheloss,whiletheprofitablememberreceivesanamountequaltothegainfromtheexchangeCCP.Thesepaymentsarecalledvariationmarginandusuallyoccurdaily.
Markingtomarkethasanotherimportantbenefit:itmakesclosingoutcontractseasier.
Example
ConsiderTraderXwhoislongthreeJunecorncontracts(contractstobuy15,000bushelsofcorninJune).SupposethattheJunefuturespriceis500centsperbushelatthecloseoftradingonDay1and490centsperbushelatthecloseofDay2.TraderXhaslost
15,000×10cents
orUSD1,500.ThisisbecauseJunecornisnowworthtencentslessperbushelthanitwasworthatthecloseoftradingonDay1.ThetraderisthusrequiredtopayUSD1,500totheCCP.IfJunecornis495centsperbushelatthecloseofDay3,TraderXhasgained
15,000×5cents
orUSD750.Inthiscase,theexchangepaysthetraderUSD750.
InitialMargin
Theinitialmarginisusuallysetbytheexchangeandisbasedonpricevolatility.
Becausecontractsaremarkedtomarketdaybyday,CCPsdonotpayinterestonvariationmargin.However,CCPswillpayinterestontheinitialmarginbecauseitbelongstothememberpayingthemargin.IftheratepaidbytheCCPisnotsatisfactory,membersmayreplacecashdepositswithsecuritiessuchasTreasurybills.Inthatcase,theCCPwouldreducethevalueofthesecuritiesbyacertainpercentagewhendeterminingtheircashmarginequivalents.Thisreductioniscalledahaircut.
MaintenanceMargin
Sofar,we'vebeentalkingaboutmarginaccountsbetweenCCPsandtheirmembers.However,ifaretailtradercontactsabrokertotrade,thattraderwillberequiredtoprovidemargintothebroker.
MarginaccountsbetweenretailtradersandbrokersdifferfromthosebetweenCCPsandtheirmembers.Itgenerallycontainsprovisionsformaintenancemargin.Inaccordancewiththegeneralrulesofmaintenancemargin,ifthebalanceofthemarginaccountfallsbelowthemaintenancemarginlevel,thetradermustprovideadditionalmargintorestoretheaccounttotheinitialmarginlevel.Ifthetraderdoesnotprovideadditionalmargin,thebrokerentersareversetradeonbehalfofthetradertocloseouttheposition.
Example
ContractSpecifications
ContractSize(ounces)
100
NumberofContracts
2
InitialFutures
$600
Margin
Per
Total
Initialmargin
$2,000
$4,000
Maintenancemargin
$1,500
$3,000
OTCMarket
AnOTCmarketisamarketinwhichparticipantsdirectlycontacteachother(orpossiblybyusingabrokerasanintermediary)totrade.
OTCmarketparticipantscanbedividedintoendusersanddealers.End-usersincludecompanies,fundmanagersandotherfinancialinstitutionsthatusederivativestomanageriskorgainspecificexposures.Dealersarelargefinancialinstitutionsthatprovidebidandaskquotesforcommonderivativestrades.
InterestratederivativesarethemostpopularderivativesintheOTCmarket.Mostinterestratederivativesareinterestrateswaps.
OTCMarket
TheattractionoftheOTCmarketisthatderivativesdonotneedtobestandardized,sotheycanbetailoredtotheneedsoftheenduser.However,oneofthemaindisadvantagesisthecounterpartyrisk.
IntheOTCmarketwithbilateralclearing,creditriskmanagementcanbecarriedoutbycallingforcollateral.Thecreditsupportannex(CSA)ofthemasteragreementbetweenthepartiesspecifieshowtocalculatethecollateralrequiredandwhatsecuritiescanbepostedascollateral.
TraditionalOTCderivativestradesarebilaterallycleared.Thisinvolvesthepartiesagreeingonhowtoclear,whatnettingarrangementswillbeusedandwhatcollateral,ifany,willbeposted.However,CCPshavebeenaroundforsometimeinOTCmarketsandhavebeenincreasinglyusedinthewakeofthe2007-2008globalfinancialcrisis.
OTCMarket
Beforethe2007-08creditcrisis,over-the-countermarketswerelargelyunregulated.Severalnewruleshavebeenintroducedsincethefinancialcrisis.Herearesomeimportantrules:
IntheUS,standardizedOTCderivativestradedbetweendealersmustbetradedonswapexecutionfacilities.Thisissimilartoexchangesormarketparticipantswhopublishbidandaskprices.
Centralcounterparties(CCPS)mustbeusedforstandardizedtradingbetweendealers.
Alltransactionsmustbereportedtoacentralregistry.
OTCMarket
ASpecialPurposeVehicle(SPV),alsoknownasaSpecialPurposeEntity(SPE),isacompanyestablishedbyanothercompanyandthecreditriskofthetwocompaniesislegallyseparate.
SPVsandSPEsareoftenusedtoconstructderivativesbasedonportfoliosofassets,suchasmortgagesorothertypesofloans.
Forexample,supposecompanyXcreatesSPV/SPEcompanyY.Typically,XtransfersassetstoYandnolongercontrolsthem.IfXgoesbankrupt,Ycancontinuetomeetitsobligations(andviceversa).
Whichoneofthefollowingstatementsisincorrectregardingthemarginingofexchange-tradedfuturescontracts?
Daytradesandspreadtransactionsrequirelowermarginlevels.
Ifaninvestorfailstodepositvariationmargininatimelymannerthepositionsmaybeliquidatedbythecarryingbroker.
Initialmarginistheamountofmoneythatmustbedepositedwhenafuturescontractisopened.
Amargincallwillbeissuedonlyiftheinvestor’smarginaccountbalancebecomesnegative.
CorrectAnswer:D
Atraderbuysonewheatcontract(underlying=5,000bushels)atapriceof$3.05perbushel.Theinitialmarginonthecontractis$4,500andthemaintenancemarginis$3,750.Atwhatpricewillthetraderreceiveamaintenancemargincall?
$2.30
$2.90
$3.20
$3.80
CorrectAnswer:B
Toutilizethecashpositionofassetsundermanagement,aportfoliomanagerentersintoalongfuturespositionontheS&P500indexwithamultiplierof250.Thecashpositionis$15millionwhichatthecurrentfuturesvalueof1,000,requiresthemanagertobelong60contracts.Ifthecurrentinitialmarginis$12,500percontract,andthecurrentmaintenancemarginis$10,000percontract,whatvariationmargindoestheportfoliomanagerhavetoadvanceifthefuturescontractvaluefallsto995attheendofthefirstdayofthepositionbeingplaced?
$30,000
$0
$300,000
$75,000
CorrectAnswer:B
Date
DecemberS&P500Futuresprice
DailyGain/Loss(USD)
9/10
1,734
-
9/11
1,756
550,000
9/12
1,712
-1,100,000
9/13
1,698
-350,000
OnSeptember10,atraderopensalongpositionin100DecemberS&P500futurescontracts.TheinitialmarginrequirementisUSD2million,andCMErequiresamaintenancemarginofUSD1.5million.AssumethatthepositioniskeptopenuntilSeptember14andnowithdrawalstakeplace.Thefollowingtablesummarizesthedailychangeinvalueofthepositionforthatperiod:
Onwhatdateswilladditionalmarginberequired?
September12,butnotSeptember13
September13,butnotSeptember12
September12andSeptember13
NeitherSeptember12norSeptember13
CorrectAnswer:A
Introduction
ThischapterfocusesonCCPsinOTCmarkets.TheseCCPsoperatesimilartothoseusedbyexchanges.LikeexchangeCCPs,membersofOTCCCPsmustprovideinitialmarginandvariationmarginandmakecontributionstothedefaultfund.
However,productsbeingclearedintheOTCmarketdifferfromthosebeingclearedbyexchanges.AnotherkeydifferenceisthatOTCcontractsarelessliquidthanexchange-tradedcontracts.Thesedifferencesalsoaffectthecalculationofvariationmargin.WhendeterminingmarginrequirementsforOTCmarkets,amodelisusuallyused.
OperationofCCPs
Variablemarginpaymentsaremadedailytoreflectchangesinthevalueofeachmember'sportfolio.
Theinitialmargintobepaidbyeachmemberiscalculatedusinghistoricaldata.However,ifthedefaultmember'sinitialmarginisinsufficienttocovertheloss,thedefaultfundofthedefaultmemberneedstobeusedtoreplenish.Ifthatisnotenough,thecontributionsfromothermembersareused.
Whenamemberdefaults,theexchangeusuallyholdsanauction,invitingothermemberstobidforthetransaction.
CCPsmaychoosetotearupdeals.Thisinvolvestheimmediatecloseoutoftransactionsbetweenamemberandthedefaultingpartyatapricethatcausessomelosstothenon-defaultingparty.
RegulationofOTCDerivativesMarket
RegulationsintroducedsincetheglobalfinancialcrisishaveledtoanincreaseintheuseofCCPsintheOTCderivativesmarket.TherulesstemfromthebeliefthatcomplexOTCderivatives,particularlythosederivedfromsubprimemortgageportfolios,playedaroleintriggeringthecrisis.
WhenG-20leadersmetinPittsburghinSeptember2009,theywereparticularlyconcernedaboutsystemicrisk.TheirstatementafterthePittsburghsummitincludedthefollowingparagraphs:
AllstandardizedOTCderivativescontractsshouldbetradedontheappropriateexchangeorelectronictradingplatformandclearedthroughthecentralcounterpartybytheendof2012atthelatest.OTCderivativescontractsshouldbereportedtothetraderepositories.Noncentrallyclearedcontractsshouldmeethighercapitalrequirements.
RegulationofOTCDerivativesMarket
TheG-20meetinginPittsburghproducedthreemajorregulationsaffectingOTCderivatives.
RequireallstandardizedOTCderivativestobeclearedthroughCCPs.Standardizedderivativesincludestandardinterestrateswapsandcreditdefaultswapsonindices.Theaimistocreateanenvironmentinwhichtradershavelesscreditexposuretoeachother,reducinginterconnectednessandsystemicrisk.
RequirestandardizedOTCderivativesbetradedonelectronicplatformstoimprovepricetransparency.
RequirealltransactionsintheOTCmarkettobereportedtothecentraltraderepository.TherequirementprovidesregulatorswithimportantinformationabouttheriskstakenbyOTCmarket.
Contrast:MarginRequirementsinBilateralMarkets
Thenewrules,whicharebeingphasedinbetween2016and2020,requiremargintobepostedforunclearedderivativestradedbetweentwofinancialinstitutions,orbetweenafinancialinstitutionandasystemicallyimportantnon-financialinstitution.Underthenewrules,initialmarginandvariationmarginmustbesubmitted.
Variationmargininunclearedtradesisusuallypasseddirectlyfromonecounterpartytoanother.However,regulationsrequirethattheinitialmarginforunclearedtransactionsbetransferredtoathirdpartytobeheldintrust.
AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofCCPs
AdvantagesofOTCCentralClearing
Easyexit
Lossmutualization
Standard loss management mechanism (margin, netting, defaultresolution)
Increasedliquidity
FormulationofstandarddocumentsforOTCderivativestransactions.
DisadvantagesofOTCCentralClearing
Moralhazard
Adverseselection
Procyclicality
Creditriskfacedbymembersbasedondefaultfundscontribution
CCPRisks
DefaultRisk
Defaultofaclearingmemberand,moreimportantly,thepossibleassociatedorknock-oneffectsthatthiscouldcause.
Aftermathofadefaulteventcreatefurtherproblems:Defaultordistressofotherclearingmembers;Failedauctions;Resignations;Reputational.
LiquidityRisk
ACCPfacesliquidityriskduetothelargequantitiesofcashthatflowthroughthemduetovariationmarginpaymentsandothercashflows.
Intheeventofadefault,theCCPmustcontinuetofulfilitsobligationstosurvivingmembersinatimelymanner.
CCPRisks
ModelRisk
Valuationmodelsarerequiredtomark-to-marketproductsforvariationmarginpurposes.Theapproachesforma
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