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eurship,ontheotherhand,hasbeenfocusingattentiononthecreativeprocess,particularlyofnewfirms.Wheretheyoverlapisatthenexusofthecreativeprocessofexistingfirms.Thus,eachfieldhasvastterrainsthatdonotoverlap.父,琴th厦is晓c淹ha故pt冬er定n蓄ev购er夕th禽el判es之s刘fo诞cu职se姿s生ex码cl桐us搞iv使el允y县on狸w絮he弱re原e累nt至re朵pr沫en版eu鸦rs握hi像p控an致d纪st弄ra岛te锻gi博c默ma臂na矩ge工me睬nt装o样ve事rl喉ap垃.Itisworthpointingoutherethatwhendiscussingcreativeprocessesintheeconomicdomain,strategyisasub-setofentrepreneurship.Forexample,foranygivennewtechnicalinventionthereare,atleastintheory,aninfinitenumberofproductpossibilitiesthatmayflowoutofthatinvention.But,inpractice,onlyafinitesub-setofthosepossibilitieswillcomeintoexistence.Ofthosenewproductsthatcomeintoexistence,onlyasub-setisintroducedbyexistingfirms.Indeed,alargenumberofnewproductsareintroducedintotheeconomybynewfirms.Strategyessentiallyfocusesonexistingfirmsandtheactivitiesofexistingfirms.Entrepreneurship,ontheotherhand,hasbeenfocusingattentiononthecreativeprocess,particularlyofnewfirms.Wheretheyoverlapisatthenexusofthecreativeprocessofexistingfirms.Thus,eachfieldhasvastterrainsthatdonotoverlap.传In法t弱he漏p蝇re论fa茄ce来t刷o生th浩ei到r扫19窜94鸟b绘oo乌k,花R棋um垒el者t,赞S物ch畜en纽de料l,赛a辉nd河T配ee诸ce逐i策de要nt跳if志y仪th犯e掀su敏bj贤ec盘t陈ma赖tt丈er馆o盲f轰st损ra乡te室gi尤c寸ma验na段ge瓦me脆nt绿a午s钳"t碧he接p箭ur脸po醋se涌fu申l阁di忙re陵ct获io逐n利an棚d丽na集tu勺ra嚼l泊ev叔ol钉ut骗io蚁n刮of抹e值nt呜er新pr戴is末es煎."屑(萌Ru慢me追lt翅,觉et玩.楚al怖.,电1浩99收4)文T胁he鹊y料fu钉rt捆he虽r册id叛en帮ti脸fy误f泽ou言r追fu化nd筋am术en仿ta冲l肺is彩su慰es草t粱ha长t鹅co词mp礼ri阀se谦a旧r喂es住ea谜rc睡h典ag织en者da引i任n巷st臭ra竞te贞gi裕c宪ma育na惰ge建me肤nt每:寇1.泄 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访Su据pp艘ly株s怜id上e:茫纸Ne岭w盒or顽e展xi购st航in她g够id妇ea贝/s骡o锐r乏in例ve交nt路io倚n/甲s;歪2.枝征 果De浪ma撇nd伐s源id此e:违O南ne停o飘r灯mo崖re悲e殃nd跟s籍–独ma收y妹be乘s详ub来je磁ct截iv罩e识(e交nd选og誓en少ou袖s)竟a我sp膜ir峰at栏io扣ns提o魂r勾ob虹je勉ct想iv歪e循(e兽xo疯ge慈no疏us栽)件go会al防s翅or鸡b稻ot对h;Theentrepreneurnotonlyhasanideaforaproductorfirm,butalsohassomepersonalaspirationsand/orgoalsinpursuingtheopportunity.GoalscouldbeasspecificasmakinganIPOinfiveyearstocreatingalegacyfortheirchildren.Andaspirationscouldrangefrommakingmoneytoenjoyinganindependentlifestyletochangingtheworld.Furthermore,theseaspirationsandgoalscouldchangeandnewonescouldemergeovertime.Theentrepreneurnotonlyhasanideaforaproductorfirm,butalsohassomepersonalaspirationsand/orgoalsinpursuingtheopportunity.GoalscouldbeasspecificasmakinganIPOinfiveyearstocreatingalegacyfortheirchildren.Andaspirationscouldrangefrommakingmoneytoenjoyinganindependentlifestyletochangingtheworld.Furthermore,theseaspirationsandgoalscouldchangeandnewonescouldemergeovertime.施3.刺念 梯Be膝li言ef币s稠ab伴ou干t售th剂in手gs冶f相av纽or梨ab眉le客t列o轨th框e执ac每hi海ev舱em碑en丘t息of宪t缠ho禁se志e袋nd果s;浸a共nd皇,字4.批傍 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us勾t观o赏a河si佛mp著le判t衰yp庄ol员og稳y香of盏e诚nt膏re章pr悟en乓eu姻ri单al诉a德ct式io淡ns勇i砌n敞re弦la榜ti曲on毯t羞o净op腐po集rt历un因it餐ie霜s分as卧f赠ol籍lo化ws锈:1.OpportunityRecognitionIfbothsourcesofsupplyanddemandexistratherobviously,theopportunityforbringingthemtogetherhastobe"recognized"andthenthematch-upbetweensupplyanddemandhastobeimplementedeitherthroughanexistingfirmoranewfirm.Examplesincludearbitrageandfranchises.Forexample,throughitsfirstsuccessfulcoffeeshop,Starbucksprovedtheexistenceofademandforspecialtycoffeesasalsoaviableandeffectivewaytosatisfythatdemand.Thereafter,eachStarbucksfranchiseeonlyhastorecognizepotentialgeographiclocationsforextendingthatdemandandsupplycombination.Theydonothavetoinventsourcesofsupply,orinducedemandforacompletelynewproduct.2.OpportunityDiscoveryIfonlyonesideexistsinanobviousmannerandtheothersideeitherdoesnotexistorissolatentastobevirtuallynon-existentformostpeople--i.e.,demandexists,butsupplydoesnot,andviceversa--then,thenon-existentsidehastobe"discovered"beforethematch-upcanbeimplemented.Inotherwords,whendemandexists;supplyhastobediscovered.AnexampleofthisisRonPopeilandhisinventionsformoreconvenientandhealthconsciouskitchendevices.Ontheothersideofthecoin,supplymightexist;thendemandhastobediscovered.Thehistoryoftechnologyentrepreneurshipisstrewnwithsolutionsinsearchofproblems.XeroxhadthetechnologyfortheMacintoshcomputer,butittookJobsandWozniaktodiscoverandexploititspotentialdemand.3.OpportunityCreationIfneithersupplynordemandexistinanobviousmanner,oneorbothhavetobe"created",andseveraleconomicinventionsinmarketing,financing,managementetc.havetobemade,fortheopportunitytocomeintoexistence.ExamplesincludeWedgwoodPottery,Edison'sGeneralElectric,U-Haul,AESCorporation,Netscape,BeanieBabies,andtheMIRspaceresort.Historically,opportunitieshavebeensupposedtoexist--andtheentrepreneureitherisalerttothem(Kirzner,1979)orsomehowgoesabout"discovering"them(Hayek,1945andSchumpeter,1976).Buttheideawewillexploreinthischapteristhatentrepreneurialopportunitiesoftenhavetobe"created"byusingtheentrepreneurialimaginationtoembodyhumanaspirationsinconcreteproductsandmarkets.THECREATIVEENTREPRENEURIALASPECTSOFFUNDAMENTALISSUESINSTRATEGICMANAGEMENT1. FirmBehavior--EmphasizingthecreativityofhumanactionHowdofirmsbehave?Or,dofirmsreallybehavelikerationalactors,and,ifnot,whatmodelsoftheirbehaviorshouldbeusedbyresearchersandpolicymakers?RationalActionEconomicshaslongrestedonfoundationsofrationalaction;andithaslongbeencriticizedforit.Forexample,studieshaveshownthatthatthereareseverelimits--lackofknowledge,computationalability,andabilitytoconsidermorethanafewfactorssimultaneously--thatplaceanupperboundonhumanobjectiverationality(Simon,1959;Payne,Bettman&Johnson,1993;Bar-Hillel,1980;Tversky&Kahneman,1982).Althoughthisdoesnotimplythatdecisionmakersareirrational,itshowsthattheymustusuallyuseheuristicsandapproximateinductivelogics--thatneverthelessoftenleadtoveryeffectivedecisions(Gigerenzer,Hell&Blank,1988).Theyseldomhavetheluxuryofbehavinglikeutilitymaximizers.Butmostcriticismsofthe"rational"foundationsofeconomicsattackandtrytorelaxassumptionsofrationalityratherthanprovideanoverarchingalternativeframework.In1991,however,BuchananandVanbergcalledformoredrasticmeasures,particularlyforourunderstandingofentrepreneurship(Buchanan&Vanberg,1991).Inthatpaper,theyarguefortheusefulnessofaperceptualconstructofthemarketasacreativeprocess,ratherthanasadiscoveryprocess,orthemorefamiliarallocativeprocess.Theirargumentsarebasedonafundamentalassumptionofthefuturethatisnotmerelyunknown,butessentiallyunknowable.Onlyspeculationsandconjecturesarepossibleaboutthefuturebecausethefutureiscreatedbythechoicesthathumanbeingsmake:“Entrepreneurialactivity,inparticular,isnottobemodeledasdiscoveryofthatwhichis“outthere.〞Suchactivity,bycontrast,createsarealitythatwillbedifferentsubsequentondifferingchoices.Hence,therealityofthefuturemustbeshapedbychoicesyettobemade,andthisrealityhasnoexistenceindependentofthesechoices.Withregardtoa“yettobecreated〞reality,itissurelyconfusingtoconsideritsemergenceintermsofthediscoveryof“overlookedopportunities.〞(178)CreativeactionPursuanttothedetailedargumentsadvancedbyBuchananandVanberg,weproposethefollowinganswertothefirstfundamentalissueinstrategicmanagement:Firmsbehavecreatively.Firmsnotonlyuserationalandanalyticaldecisionmaking,theyalsousecreativeactionasawaytofigureoutbothgoalsandstrategiesinanintrinsicallydynamicprocess.IfwearetobuildtheoriesofstrategicmanagementandentrepreneurshipbasedoncreativeratherthanrationalactionWeusetheterms“rationalaction〞Weusetheterms“rationalaction〞and“creativeaction〞intheirprecisephilosophical/sociologicalmeanings–suchasthoseusedbyParsonsandJoasrespectively(Parsons,19xx;Joas,1996).Wewanttostressthatwedonotmeancreativeactiontobe“irrational〞,nordowesuggestthatrationalitycannotleadtocreativeoutcomesin