2018考研英语考前点睛新题型讲义

题型1: 题型2：匹配题（07年，16年）20多个国家。7PartBInthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45,choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblanks.Therearetwoextrachoices,whichdonotfitinanyofthegaps.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)Canada’ss(theleadersofprovincialernments),iftheyhaveanybreathleftaftercominingaboutOttawaattheirlateJulyannualmeeting,mightspareamomenttodosomething,together,toreducehealth-carecosts.They’reallgroaningaboutsoaringhealthbudgets,thefastest-growingcomponentofwhicharepharmaceuticalcosts. Whattodo?BoththeRomanowcommissionandtheKirbycommitteeonhealthcare--tosaynothingofreportsfromotherexperts-- mendedthecreationofanationaldrugagency.Insteadofeachprovincehavingitsownlistofapproveddrugs,bureaucracy,proceduresandlimitedbargainingpower,allwouldpoolresources,workwithOttawa,andcreateanationalinstitution. But“national”doesn’thavetomeanthat.“National”couldmeaninterprovincial--provincescombiningeffortstocreateonebody.Eitherway,onebenefitofa“national”organizationwouldbetonegotiatebetterprices,ifpossible,withdrugmanufacturers.Insteadofhavingoneprovince--oraseriesofhospitalswithinaprovince--negotiateapriceforagivendrugontheprovinciallist,thenationalagencywouldnegotiateonbehalfofallprovinces.Ratherthan,say,Quebec,negotiatingonbehalfofsevenmillionpeople,thenationalagencywouldnegotiateonbehalfof31millionpeople.Basiceconomicssuggeststhegreaterthepotentialconsumers,thehigherthelikelihoodofabetterprice. AsmallstephasbeentakeninthedirectionofanationalagencywiththecreationoftheCanadianCo-ordinatingOfficeforHealthTechnologyAssessment,fundedbyOttawaandtheprovinces.Underit,aCommonDrugReview mendstoprovinciallistswhichnewdrugsshouldbeincluded.Predictably,andregrettably,Quebecrefusedtojoin.Afewsaresuspiciousofanyfederal-provincialdeal-making.They(particularlyQuebecandAlberta)justwantOttawatoforkoveradditionalbillionswithfew,ifany,stringsattached.That’sonereasonwhytheideaofanationallisthasn’tgoneanywhere,whiledrugcostskeeprisingfast. slovetoquoteMr.Romanow’sreportselectively,especiallythepartsaboutmorefederalmoney.Perhapstheyshouldreadwhathehadtosayaboutdrugs:“Anationaldrugagencywouldprovideernmentsmoreinfluenceonpharmaceuticalcompaniesinordertoconstraintheever-increasingcostof SowhenthesgatherinNiagaraFallstoassembletheirusualcomintlist,theyshouldalsogetcrackingaboutsomethingintheirjurisdictionthatwouldhelptheirbudgetsandpatients.Quebec’stoanationalagencyisprovincialistideology.OneofthefirstadvocatesforanationallistwasaresearcheratLavalUniversity.Quebec’sDrugInsuranceFundhasseenitscostsskywithannualincreasesfrom14.3percentto26.8percent!OrtheycouldreadMr.Kirby’sreport:“thesubstantialbuyingpowerofsuchanagencywouldstrengthenthepublicprescription-druginsurancenstonegotiatethelowestpossiblepurchasepricesfromdrugcompanies.”Whatdoes“national”mean?RoyRomanowandSenatorMichaelKirby mendedafederal-provincialbodymuchliketherecentlycreatedNationalHealthCouncil.Theproblemissimpleandstark:health-carecostshavebeen,are,andwillcontinuetoincreasefasterthanernmentrevenues.AccordingtotheCanadianInstituteforHealthInformation,prescriptiondrugcostshaverisensince1997attwicetherateofoverallhealth-carespending.Partoftheincreasecomesfromdrugsbeingusedtoreceotherkindsoftreatments.Partofitarisesfromnewdrugscostingmorethanolderkinds.Partofitishigherprices.So,iftheprovinceswanttorunthehealth-careshow,theyshouldprovetheycanrunit,startingwithaninterprovincialhealthlistthatwouldendduplication,saveadministrativecosts,preventoneprovincefrombeingyedoffagainstanother,andbargainforbetterdrugprices.Ofcourse,thepharmaceuticalcompanieswillscream.Theylikedividedbuyers;theycanlobbybetterthatway.Theycanusethethreatofremovingjobsfromoneprovincetoanother.Theycanhopethat,ifoneprovinceincludesadrugonitslist,thepressurewillcauseotherstoincludeitontheirs.Theywouldn’tlikeanationalagency,butself-interestwouldleadthemtodealwithit.08年（7选Thetimeforsharpeningpencils,arrangingyourdesk,andngalmostanythingelseinsteadofwritinghasended.Thefirstdraftwillappearonthepageonlyifyoustopavoidingtheinevitableandsit,standup,orliedowntowrite.（41）DBeflexible.Youroutlineshouldsmoothlyconductyoufromonepointtothenext,butdonotpermitittorailroadyou.Ifarelevantandimportantideaoccurstoyounow,workitintothedraft.（42）GGrr,punctuation,andspellingcanwaituntilyourevise.Concentrateonwhatyouaresaying.Goodwritingmostoftenoccurswhenyouareinhotpursuitofanidearatherthaninanervoussearchforerrors.（43）AYourpageswillbeeasiertokeeptrackofthatway,and,ifyouhavetoclipaparagraphtoceitelsewhere,youwillnitloseanywritingontheotherside.Ifyouareworkingonawordprocessor,youcantakeadvantageofitscapacitytomakeadditionsanddeletionsaswellasmoveentireparagraphbymakingjustafewsimplekeyboardcommands.Somesoftwareprogramscanalsocheckspellingandcertaingrticalelementsinyourwriting.（44）CTheseprintoutsarealsoeasiertoreadthanthescreenwhenyouworkonrevision.Onceyouhaveafirstdraftonpaper,youcandeletematerialthatinunrelatedtoyourthesisandaddmaterialnecessarytoillustrateyourpointsandmakeyourpaperconvincing.Thestudentwhowrote：TheA&PasaStateofMindwiselydroppedaparagraphthatquestionedwhetherSammydisyschauvinisticattitudestowardwomen.（45）ERememberthatyourinitialdraftisonlythat.Youshouldgothroughthepapermanytimes-andthenagain-workingtosubstantiateandclarifyyourideas.Youmayevenendupwithseveralentireversionsofthepaper.Rewrite.Thesentenceswithineachparagraphshouldberelatedtoasingletopic.Transitionsshouldconnectoneparagraphtothenextsothattherearenoabruptorconfusingshifts.Awkwardorwordyphrasingorunclearsentencesandparagraphsshouldbemercilesslypokedandproddedintoshape.Tomakerevisingeasier,leavewidemarginsandextraspacebetweenlinessothatyoucaneasilyaddwords,sentences,andcorrections.Writeononlyonesideofthepaper.Afteryouhaveclearlyandadequaydevelopedthebodyofyourpaper,payparticularattentiontotheintroductoryandconcludingparagraphs.It''sprobablybesttowritetheintroductionlast,afteryouknowpreciselywhatyouareintroducing.Concludingparagraphsdemandequalattentionbecausetheyleavethereaderwithafinalimpression.It'sworthremembering,however,thatthoughacleancopyfreshoffaprintermaylookterrific,itwillreadonlyaswellasthethinkingandwritingthathavegoneintoit.Manywritersprudentlystoretheirdataondisksandprinttheirpageseachtimetheyfinishadrafttoavoidlosinganymaterialbecauseofpowerfailuresorotherproblems.Itmakesnodifferencehowyouwrite,justsoyoudo.Nowthatyouhavedevelopedatopicintoatentativethesis,youcanassembleyournotesandbegintofleshoutwhateveroutlineyouhavemade.Althoughthisisaninterestingissue,ithasnothingtodowiththethesis,whichexinshowthesettinginfluencesSammy'sdecisiontoquithisjob.Insteadofincludingthatparagraph,sheaddedonethatdescribedLengel’scrabbedresponsetothegirlssothatshecouldleaduptotheA&PheInthefinalparagraphaboutthesignificanceofthesettinginA&P,thestudentbringstogetherthereasonsSammyquithisjobbyreferringtohisrefusaltoacceptLengel'sstorepolicies.Byusingthefirstdraftasameansofthinkingaboutwhatyouwanttosay,youwillverylikelydiscovermorethanyournotesoriginallysuggested.Plentyofgoodwritersdon'tuseoutlinesatallbutdiscoverorderingprinciplesastheywrite.Donotattempttocomposeaperfectlycorrectdraftthefirsttimearound.CoincidingwiththegroundbreakingtheoryofbiologicalevolutionproposedbyBritishnaturalistCharlesDarwininthe1860s,BritishsocialphilosopherHerbertSpencerputforwardhisowntheoryofbiologicalandculturalevolution.Spencerarguedthatallworldlyphenomena,includinghumansocieties,changedovertime,advancingtowardperfection.41. AmericansocialscientistLewisHenryMorganintroducedanothertheoryofculturalevolutioninthelate1800s.Morgan,alongwithTylor,wasoneofthefoundersofmodernanthropology.Inhiswork,heattemptedtoshowhowallaspectsofculturechangedtogetherintheevolutionof Intheearly1900sinNorthAmerica,German-bornAmericananthropologistFranzBoasdevelopedanewtheoryofcultureknownashistoricalparticularism.Historicalparticularism,whichemphasizedtheuniquenessofallcultures,gavenewdirectiontoanthropology.43. Boasfeltthatthecultureofanysocietymustbeunderstoodastheresultofauniquehistoryandasoneofmanyculturesbelongingtoabroaderevolutionarystageortypeofculture. HistoricalparticularismbecameadominantapproachtothestudyofcultureinAmericananthropology,largelythroughtheinfluenceofmanystudentsofBoas.Butanumberofanthropologistsintheearly1900salsorejectedtheparticularisttheoryofcultureinfavorofdiffusionism.Someattributedvirtuallyeveryimportantculturalachievementtotheinventionsofafew,especiallygiftedpeoplesthat,accordingtodiffusionists,thenspreadtoothercultures.45. Alsointheearly1900s,Frenchsociologist?Durkheimdevelopedatheoryofculturethatwouldgreatlyinfluenceanthropology.Durkheimproposedthatreligiousbeliefsfunctionedtoreinsocialsolidarity.Aninterestintherelationshipbetweenthefunctionofsocietyandculture—knownasfunctionalism—becameamajorthemeinEuropean,andespeciallyBritish,anthropology.Otheranthropologistsbelievedthatculturalinnovations,suchasinventions,hadasingleoriginandpassedfromsocietytosociety.Thistheorywasknownasdiffusionism.Inordertostudyparticularculturesascompleyaspossible,Boasbecameskilledinlinguistics,thestudyoflanguages,andinphysicalanthropology,thestudyofhumanbiologyandanatomy.Hearguedthathumanevolutionwascharacterizedbyastrugglehecalledthe“survivalofthefittest,”inwhichweakerracesandsocietiesmusteventuallyberecedbystronger,moreadvancedracesandsocieties.Theyalsofocusedonimportantritualsthatappearedtopreserveapeople’ssocialstructure,suchasinitiationceremoniesthatformallysignifychildren’sentranceintoadulthood.Thus,inhisview,diverseaspectsofculture,suchasthestructureoffamilies,formsofmarriage,categoriesofkinship,ownershipofproperty,formsofernment,technology,andsystemsoffoodproduction,allchangedassocietiesevolved.Supportersofthetheoryviewedasacollectionofintegratedpartsthatworktogethertokeepasocietyfunctioning.Forexample,BritishanthropologistsGraftonElliotSmithandW.J.Perryincorrectlysuggested,onthebasisofinadequateinformation,thatfarming,potterymaking,andmetallurgyalloriginatedinancientEgyptanddiffusedthroughouttheworld.Infact,alloftheseculturaldevelopmentsoccurredseparayatdifferenttimesinmanypartsoftheworld.Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanairnewindowandrealizethatyouareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinnerthanabrown-paperenvelope,oryourinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue.Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,entrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunction（名词动词化）asatypewriterandprintingpress,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,pianoandradio,themailaswellasthemailcarrier.(41) Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethatservesasthemodeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andceofpraiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury'sculturemachine.Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotreadwithcaution.(42)_D callitasecretwarfortworeasons.First,mostpeopledonotrealizethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Second,themajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyareng.Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmakenests.Yetforthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods-paintings,sculptureandarchitecture-andsuperfluousexperiences-music,liture,religionandphilosophy.(43) Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuckindownloadEvenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidofproductionremains,withasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontent,andahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.(44) evisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthatevisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton. Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof"stickiness"-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.Ofcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureandultimaywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskills,butfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity.Applicationslike ,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,wordsandothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusing,entertainingandenlighteningothers.Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday.Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloadinganduploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-whose ewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine.Thechallengethecomputermountsto evisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformatbeingrecedbyanotherinthemannerofrecord yersbeingrecedbyCDyers.Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepasthalf-century,muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium-evision-andevisionisdefinedbydownloading.Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflow,toencouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningfuluploading.Thesocialsciencesareflourishing.Asof2005,therewerealmosthalfamillionprofessionalsocialscientistsfromallfieldsintheworld,workingbothinsideandoutsideacademia.AccordingtotheWorldSocialScienceReport2010,thenumberofsocial-sciencestudentsworldwidehasswollenbyabout11%everyyearsince2000.Yetthisenormousresourceinnotcontributingenoughtotoday’sglobalchallengesincludingclimatechange,security,sustainabledevelopmentandhealth.(41) Humanityhasthenecessaryagro-technologicaltoolstoeradicatehunger,fromgeneticallyengineeredcropstoartificialfertilizers.Here,too,theproblemsaresocial:theorganizationanddistributionoffood,wealthandprosperity. Thisisashame—thecommunityshouldbegrastheopportunitytoraiseitsinfluenceintherealworld.ToparaphrasethegreatsocialscientistJosephSchumpeter:thereisnoradicalinnovationwithoutcreativedestruction.Today,thesocialsciencesarelargelyfocusedondisciplinaryproblemsandinternalscholarlydebates,ratherthanontopicswithexternalimpact.ysesrevealthatthenumberofpapersincludingthe “environmentalchanged”or“climatechange”haveincreasedrapidlysince2004,(43) Whensocialscientistsdotacklepracticalissues,theirscopeisoftenlocal:BelgiumisinterestedmainlyintheeffectsofpovertyonBelgiumforexample.Andwhetherthecommunity’sworkcontributesmuchtoanoverallaccumulationofknowledgeisdoubtful.Theproblemisnotnecessarilytheamountofavailablefunding(44) thisisanadequateamountsolongasitisaimedintherightdirection.Socialscientistswhocominaboutalackoffundingshouldnotexpectmoreintoday’seconomicclimate.Thetrickistodirectthesefundsbetter.TheEuropeanUnionFrameworkfundingprogramshavelonghadacategoryspecificallytargetedatsocialscientists.Thisyear,itwasproposedthatsystembechanged:Horizon2020,anewprogramtobeenactedin2014,wouldnothavesuchacategory,Thishasresultedinsfromsocialscientists.Buttheintentionisnottoneglectsocialscience;rather,thecompleteopposite.(45) Thatshouldcreatemorecollaborativeendeavorsandhelptodevelopprojectsaimeddirectlyatsolvingglobalproblems.[A]Itcouldbethatweareevolvingtwocommunitiesofsocialscientists:onethatisdiscipline-orientedandpublishinginhighlyspecializedjournals,andonethatisproblem-orientedand elsewhere,suchasHowever,thenumbersarestillsmall:in2010,about1,600of100,000social-sciencespaperspublishedgloballyincludedoneof theideaistosocialscientiststointegratetheirworkwithothercategories,includinghealthanddemographicchangefoodsecurity,marineresearchandthebio-economy,clear,efficientenergy;andinclusive,innovativeandsecuresocieties.thesolutionistochangethemindsetoftheacademiccommunity,andwhatitconsiderstobeitsmaingoal.Globalchallengesandsocialinnovationoughttoreceivemuchmoreattentionfromscientists,especiallytheyoungones.Theseissuesallhaverootcausesinhumanbehavior.allrequirebehavioralchangeandsocialinnovations,aswellastechnologicaldevelopment.Stemmingclimatechange,forexample,isasmuchaboutchangingconsumptionpatternsandpromotingtaxacceptanceasitisaboutdevelocleanenergy.Despitethesefactors,manysocialscientistsseemreluctanttotacklesuchproblems.AndinEurope,someareupinarmsoveraproposaltodropaspecificfundingcategoryforsocial-scienceresearchandtointegrateitwithincross-cuttingtopicsofsustainabledevelopment.Duringthelate1990s,nationalspendingonsocialsciencesandthehumanitiesasapercentageofallresearchanddevelopmentfunds-includingernment,highereducation,non-profitandcorporate-variedfromaround4%to25%;inmostEuropeannations,itisabout15%.Howdoesyourreadingproceed?Clearlyyoutrytocomprehend,inthesenseofidentifyingmeaningsforindividualwordsandworkingoutrelationshipsbetweenthem,drawingonyourexplicitknowledgeofEnglishgrr(41) youbegintoinferacontextforthetext,forinstance,bymakingdecisionsaboutwhatkindofspeecheventisinvolved:whoismakingtheutnce,towhom,whenandwhere.Thewaysofreadingindicatedherearewithoutdoubtkindsofofcomprehension.Buttheyshowcomprehensiontoconsistnotjustpassiveassimilationbutofactiveengagementinferenceandproblem-solving.Youinferinformationyoufeelthewriterhasinvitedyoutograspbypresentingyouwithspecificevidenceandcues(42) Conceivedinthisway,comprehensionwillnotfollowexactlythesametrackforeachreader.Whatisinquestionisnottheretrievalofanabsolute,fixedor“true”meaningthatcanbereadoffandclockedforaccuracy,orsometimelessrelationofthetexttotheworld.(43) Suchbackgroundmaterialinevitablyreflectswhoweare,(44) Thisdoesn’t,however,makeinterpretationmerelyrelativeorevenpointless.Preciselybecausereadersfromdifferenthistoricalperiods,cesandsocialexperiencesproducedifferentbutoverlapreadingsofthesamewordsontheincludingfortextsthatengagewithfundamentalhumanconcerns-debatesabouttextscanyanimportantroleinsocialdiscussionofbeliefsandvalues.Howwereadagiventextalsodependstosomeextentonourparticularinterestinreadingit.(45) suchdimensionsofreadsuggest-asothersintroducedlaterinthebookwillalsodo-thatwebringanimplicit(oftenunacknowledged)agendatoanyactofreading.Itdoesn’tthennecessarilyfollowthatonekindofreadingisfuller,moreadvancedormoreworthwhilethananother.Ideally,differentkindsofreadinginformeachother,andactasusefulreferencepointsforandcounterbalancestooneanother.Together,theymakeupthereadingcomponentofyouroveralllicyorrelationshiptoyoursurroundingtextualenvironment.Arewestudyingthattextandtryingtorespondinawaythatfulfillstherequirementofagivencourse?Readingitsimplyforpleasure?Skimmingitforinformation?Waysofreadingonatrainorinbedarelikelytodifferconsiderablyfromreadinginaseminarroom.Factorssuchastheceandperiodinwhichwearereading,ourgenderethnicity,ageandsocialclasswillencourageustowardscertaininterpretationbutatthesametimeobscureorevencloseoffothers.Ifyouareunfamiliarwithwordsoridioms,youguessattheirmeaning,usingcluespresentedinthecontest.Ontheassumptionthattheywill erelevantlater,youmakeamentalnoteofdiscourseentitiesaswellaspossiblelinksbetweenthem.Ineffect,youtrytoreconstructthelikelymeaningsoreffectsthatanygivensentence,imageorreferencemighthavehad:Thesemightbetheonestheauthorintended.Youmakefurtherinferences,forinstance,abouthowthetestmaybesignificanttoyou,oraboutitsvalidity—inferencesthatformthebasisofaalresponseforwhichtheauthorwillinevitablybefarlessresponsible.Inys，novelsandnarrativepoems,charactersspeakasconstructscreatedbytheauthor,necessarilyasmouthpiecesfortheauthor’sownRather,weascribemeaningstotestonthebasisofinctionbetweenwhatwemightcalltextualandcontextualmaterial:betweenkindsoforganizationorpatterningweperceiveinatext’sformalstructures(soespeciallyitslanguagestructures)andvariouskindsofbackground,socialknowledge,beliefandattitudethatwebringtothetext.10 PartForQuestions41-45,choosethemostsuitableparagraphsfromthefirstA-GandfillthemintothenumberedboxestofromacoherenttextParagraphEhasbeencorrectly ced.Thereisoneparagraphwhichdosenotfitinwiththetext.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)Thefirstandmoreimportantistheconsumer’sgrowingpreferenceforeatingout;theconsumptionoffoodanddrinkin cesotherthanhomeshasrisenfromabout32percentoftotalconsumptionin1995to35percentin2000andisexpectedtoapproach38percentby2005.Thisdevelopmentisboostingwholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesegmentby4to5percentayearEuropecomparedwithgrowthinretaildemandof1to2percent.Meanwhileastherecessionisloominglarge,peoplearegettinganxious.Theytendtokeepatighterholdontheirpurseandconsidereatingathomearealisticalternative。RetailsalesoffoodanddrinkinEurope’slargestmarketsareatastandstill,leavingEuropeangroceryretailershungryforopportunitiestogrow.Mostleadingretailershavealreadytried withlimitsuccess,andexpansionabroad.Butalmostallhaveignoredthebig,profitableopportunityintheirownbackyardthewholesalefoodanddrinktrade,whichappearstobejustthekindofmarketretailersneed。Willsuchvariationsbringaboutachangeintheoverallstructureofthefoodanddrinkmarket?Definiynot.Thefunctioningofthemarketisbasedonflexibletrendsdominatedbypotentialbuyers.Inotherwords,itisuptothebuyerratherthanthesellertodecidewhattobuy.Atanyratethischangewillultimaybeacclaimedbyanever-growingnumberofbothdomesticandinternationalconsumersregardlessofhowlongthecurrentconsumerpatternwilltakehold.Allinall,thisclearlyseemstobeamarketinwhichbigretailersthatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropemaywellexpecttorakeinsubstantialprofitsthereby.Atleast,thatishowitlooksasawhole.Closerinspectionrevealsimportdifferencesamongthebiggestnationalmarkets,especiallyintheircustomersegmentsandwholesalestructures,aswellasthecompetitivedynamicsofindividualfoodanddrinkcategories.BigretailersmustunderstandthesedifferencesbeforetheycanidentifythesegmentsofEuropeanwholesalinginwhichparticularabilitiesmightunseatsmallerbutentrenchedcompetitors.Newskillsandunfamiliarbusinessmodelsareneededtoo.Despitevariationsindetail,wholesalemarketsinthecountriesthathavebeencloselyexamined—France,Germany,Italy,andSpain—aremadeoutofsamebuildingblocks.Demandcomesmainlyfromtwosources:independentmorn-and-popgrocerystoreswhich,unlikelargeretailchains,aretwosmalltobuystraightfromproducers,andfoodserviceoperatorsrangefromsnackmachinestolargeinstitutionalcateringventures,butmostofthesebusinessesareknowninthetradeas“horeca”：hos,restaurants,andcafes.Overall,Europe’sretailwholesalemarketforfoodanddrinkisgrowingatthesamesluggishpaceastheretailmarket,butthefigures,whenaddedtogether,maskstwoopposingtrends.Forexample,wholesalefoodanddrinksalescometo$268billioninFrance,Germany,Italy,SpainandtheUnitedKingdomin2000-morethan40percentofretailsales.Moreover,averageoverallmarginsarehigherinwholesalethaninretail;wholesaledemandfromthefoodservicesectorisgrowingquicklyasmoreEuropeanseatoutmoreoften;andchangesinthecompetitivedynamicsofthisfragmentedindustryareatlastmakingitfeasibleforwholesalerstoconsiderate.However,noneoftheserequirementsshoulddeterlargeretailsandevensomelargegoodproducersandexistingwholesalersfromtryingtheirhand,forthosethatmastertheintricaciesofwholesalinginEuropestandtoreapconsiderablegains.41.→42.→43→44.→ENodisciplineshaveseizedonprofessionalismwithasmuchenthusiasmasthehumanities.Youcan，MrMenandpointsout，becamealawyerinthreeyearsandamedicaldoctorinfour.Buttheregulartimeittakestogetadoctoraldegreeinthehumanitiesisnineyears.Notsurprisingly，uptohalfofalldoctoralstudentsinEnglishdropoutbeforegettingtheirdegrees.Hisconcernismainlywiththehumanities：Liture，languages，philosophyandon.Thesearedisciplinesthataregoingoutofstyle：22%ofAmericancollegegraduatesnowmajorinbusinesscomparedwithonly2%inhistoryand4%inEnglish.However，manyleadingAmericanuniversitieswanttheirundergraduatestohaveagroundinginthebasiccanonofideasthateveryeducatedshouldposses.Butmostfinditdifficulttoagreeonwhata“generaleducation”shouldlooklike.AtHarvard，MrMenandnotes，“thegreatbooksarereadbecausetheyhavebeenread”-theyformasortofsocialglue.Equallyunsurprisingly，onlyabouthalfendupwithprofessorshipsforwhichtheyenteredgraduateschool.Therearesimplytoofewposts.ThisispartlybecauseuniversitiescontinuetoproduceevermorePhDs.Butfewerstudentswanttostudyhumanitiessubjects：Englishdepartmentsawardedmorebachelor‘sdegreesin1970-71thantheydid20yearslater.Fewerstudentsrequiresfewerteachers.So，attheendofadecadeoftheses-writing，manyhumanitiesstudentsleavetheprofessiontodosomethingforwhichtheyhavenotbeentrained.OnereasonwhyitishardtodesignandteachsuchcoursesisthattheycancutacrosstheinsistencebytopAmericanuniversitiesthatliberal-artseducationsandprofessional