社会认知-Social-Cognition(中英文)

Chapter3SocialCognition（社会认知）1.Themannerinwhichweinterpret,analyze,remember,anduseinformationaboutthesocialworld.（我们解释、分析、记忆和使用社会世界信息的方式）2.Thestudyofhowpeopleforminferencesfromthesocialinformationintheenvironment.（研究人们如何根据环境中的社会信息形成推理）socialcognitionMaintermsconfirmatoryhypothesistesting（证实的假设检验）;conjunctionerror（联合错误）;planningfallacy（计划错误）;counterfactualthinking（反事实思维）;rationalandintuitiveprocessing（理性和直觉加工）;magicalthinking（虚幻的思维）.Socialinference(社会推理);statisticalinformationandcasehistoryinformation(统计信息和个案历史信息);illusorycorrelation(错觉相关);framingeffect(参照效应);mood-congruentmemory(情绪相符的记忆);mood-dependentmemory(情绪依赖的记忆);mentalcontamination(心理污染);affectinfusionmodel(情感结合模型);thoughtsuppression(思想压抑);attention,encoding,retrieval(注意、编码和提取;self-fulfillingprophecies（自我实现的预言）;informationoverload（信息超载）;representativenessheuristic（代表性启发）;availabilityheuristic（可得性启发）;priming（启动）;simulationheuristic（模拟启发）;anchoringandadjustmentheuristic（锚定和调整启发）.I.Socialinference（社会推理）Anysocialinferenceiscomposedofseveralsteps:gatheringinformation,decidingwhatinformationtouse,andintegratingtheinformationintoajudgment.（任何社会推理都由几个步骤构成：收集信息、决定使用什么信息、整合信息形成判断。）I.Socialinference（社会推理）1.Gatheringinformation:人们主观上采取公正的、没有偏差的方式收集用于社会推理的信息，但实际的信息收集过程易于受到多种偏差的影响。人们社会推理过程存在信息方面的偏差（biasesininformation）。主要的偏差来源有：1）Priorexpectationsinfluencethesocialperceivertocollectexpectation-consistentinformation.Expectation-inconsistentinformationwillbemorescrutinized.（先前的期望会影响社会知觉者收集与期望一致的信息，与预期不一致的信息会被更多地检查。）Asfortheeffectofpriorexpectation,fourconditionsareproblematic（至于先前期望的影响，有四种情况是有问题的）.Thefirstisfaultyexpectations.Thesecondisthesocialperceiverfailstorecognizethebias.Thethirdisoverrulingconsiderationofinformationaltogether.Thefinalisthetendencytopersevereanimpressioneveninthefaceofcontradictoryinformation.I.Socialinference1.Gatheringinformation2）Smallsample（小样本）:inferencesareproblematicwhentheyarebasedonverylittleinformation.3）Statisticalversuscasehistoryinformation:人们很容易根据丰富多彩的、令人激动的个案信息而得出坚定的结论。Statisticalinformationprovidesdataaboutalargenumberofindividuals,whereascasehistoryinformationdealswithonlyafewspecificindividuals.Whenpeopleareexposedtobothstatisticalinformationandacontradictorybutcolorfulcasehistory,thecasehistoryoftenhasmoreinfluenceontheirjudgment.在说服他人时，统计数据与生动的个案信息同样重要。4）Impactofnegativeinformation（负面信息的影响）:Negativeinformationattractsmoreattentionthanpositiveinformation,consequentlyisweightedmoreheavilythanpositiveaspectswhenjudgmentsaremade.5）Retrievinginformationfromschemas:社会心理学实验研究介绍：

研究问题：Evenwhenpeoplearewarnedthatinformationmaybebiased,theysometimesfailtounderstandthefullimplicationsofthatbias.（即使当人们被警告信息可能有偏差时，他们有时也没有理解偏差的全部意义）一、实验处理（自变量的操纵）自变量1：告知狱警是典型的、狱警是不典型的、没有告知自变量2：观看两种类型的狱警录像，一种描述的是同情的、关爱的，一种是不人道的(inhumane)、猛男的(macho)、残酷的二、观察记录的因变量：回答什么样的人成为狱警三、实验结果：看仁慈录像的人比看不人道录像的人对狱警的态度更正面；参加者的社会推理不受录像中的狱警是否是典型的告知的影响。四、对这个研究的反思：I.Socialinference2.Makingjudgments（做判断）Integratinginformationintojudgments:Thehumanjudgmentprocessdoesnotcloselyfollowtheprinciplesofarationalmodel.However,humandecisionmakershavegreatfaithintheirabilitiestomakedecisions.(人们的判断过程并不严格遵循理性模型的原理。然而人类决策者非常相信他们做决策的能力）Socialjudgmentsareusuallybasedonincompleteinformation（社会判断通常基于不完全的信息）.Judgmentsofcovariation（共变判断）:Covariationmeanswhatgoeswithwhatinsociallife.

Framingeffects（表述效应）:Termsusedtocalculatedecisionalternativesstronglyinfluencepeople’sjudgments.Motivationinfluencesthedirection,accuracyofjudgment（动机影响判断的方向和准确性）.Inferenceisstronglyinfluencedbyemotion（情绪也影响推论过程）.JudgmentsofcovariationJudgmentsofcovariation:在整合社会信息、形成连贯的和一致的判断时，人们希望弄明白哪些事情总是一起发生。(Whenputtinginformationtogethertoformcoherentimpressionsofpeopleandevents,peopleareconcernedaboutfiguringoutwhatgoeswithwhatinsociallife.)Inmakingjudgmentsaboutcovariation,peoplearepronetocertainerrors.Oneerrorisillusorycorrelation（错觉相关）.1.Illusorycorrelation:Peopletendtoseethingsasgoingtogetherwhentheythinktheyoughttogotogetherorwhentheysharefeaturesthatmakethemseemsimilar.Thus,whenarelationshipbetweentwovariablesisexpected,apersonislikelytooverestimatehowcloselyrelatedthosetwothingsareorimposearelationshipwhennoneexist.2.Factorsleadtoillusorycorrelation（导致错觉相关的因素）:Associativemeaning（意义联想）：基于先前的期望，总是在一块的事物是有联系的。Paireddistinctiveness（配对的区别性）：共同拥有不一般的特征的事物是联系在一起的。FramingeffectsFramingeffects（表述效应）:Termsinwhichdecisionalternativesareframedoftenstronglyinfluencepeople’sjudgments.（各种决策方法表述的术语常常强烈地影响人们的判断）Oneexampleispeople’srisk-aversetendency（一个事例是风险厌恶倾向）.People’srisk-aversetendency:Whetheradecisionispresentedintermsofthegainsitwillcreateorthelossesthatmightbeincurredinfluencespeople’sjudgment（一个决策是否用它将产生的收益来描述还是它将发生的损失来描述会影响人们的判断）.Generallypeoplebecomeverycautiouswhenalternativesarephrasedintermsoftheirrisks,buttheyarefarmorelikelytotakechanceswhenalternativesareframedintermsofgains.（一般来说，当方案根据风险来表述时，人们变得更加谨慎；用收益来表述时，人们非常可能去尝试）Motivationandinference1.Howweprocessandputinformationtogethercanbeheavilyinfluencedbytheinferenceswewanttomake.2.Peopleoftengenerateandevaluateinformationinaself-servingmanner,constructingtheoriesthatareconsistentwiththeirbeliefs.3.Higherlevelsofmotivationincreasetheaccuracyofjudgmentswhenthosejudgmentswereeasytomakebutdecreasejudgmentalaccuracyinthecaseofdifficultjudgments.So,adesiretobeaccuratedoesnotnecessarilytranslateintoreality.4.Doesknowledgeabilityorexpertiseleadtoaccuratejudgment?Notcertainly.I.Socialinference3.Rapidprocessingandjudgment:automaticevaluationAutomaticevaluation-behaviorlink（自动的评价-行动联系）:Evaluatingstimuliaspositiveornegativeisanautomatic,unawaresocialcognitionprocess.Suchevaluationguidessubsequentaction（这样的评价会指导后续的行为）.Evaluativelytingedstimuli（评价意味的刺激）areeasilyandquicklynoticedandpromptthebehavioraltendenciesofapproachoravoidance.4.Judgingtheemotionalresponseandits’influence（判断情绪反应和情绪的影响）:affectiveforecasting（感情预测）Peoplecanaccuratelyjudgetheiremotionalresponsestoevents,butoftenoverpredicthowlongtheiremotionalreactionswilllast.I.Socialinference4.Socialinferencesuffersfrommanyerrorsandbiases（社会推理易于遭受各种错误和偏差）.Whydopeoplenotobservetherationalmodel?Becauseitisoftenmoreimportantforpeopletobeefficientthantobe100percentaccurate.Consequently,peopledrawontheirpreexistingconceptionsofpeopleandsituationsanduseinferentialshortcutstomakesocialjudgmentsquicklyandefficiently（因为效率比100%的准确更重要，因此，人们利用已经存在的人和情境的概念、使用推理捷径来迅速作出社会判断）.II.Mentalshortcuts（心理捷径）Peopleusesomementalshortcutsbecauseofavoidinginformationoverloadononehand,andofensuringaccuracyofinferenceontheotherhand.Heuristicsaresomesimplerulesformakingcomplexdecisionsordrawinginferencesinarapidandseeminglyeffortlessmanner.Theyarethemostusefulmentalshortcuts.1.Representativenessheuristic(Judgingbyresemblance)（代表性启发、根据相似性做判断）:Astrategyformakingjudgmentsbasedontheextenttowhichcurrentstimulioreventsresembleotherstimuliorcategories.Errorofignoringbaserate（忽略基本比率的错误）:Conjunctionerror:Combininginformationthatdoesnotbelongtogether,simplybecausetheinformationseemsasifitoughttogotogether.II.Mentalshortcuts（心理捷径）2.Theavailabilityheuristic（可得性启发）:Theeasieritistobringinformationtomind,thegreateritsimportanceorrelevancetoourjudgmentsordecisions.Informationthatiseasytorecall,orhaslargeamountinmemory,hasmoreinfluence.Primingincreasestheavailabilityofinformation.3.Thesimulationheuristic（模拟启发）:Theeasewithwhichparticularendingscometomindisusedtojudgewhatislikelytohappen.Mentalsimulation（心理模拟）:Simulatinghoweventsmayhappenprovidesawindowonthefuturebyhelpingpeopleenvisionpossibilitiesanddevelopplansforbringingthosepossibilitiesabout.（模拟事件将怎样发生为人们预想未来的可能性提供了窗口，并发展使可能性变为现实的计划，预想过程比结果更有效）II.Mentalshortcuts（心理捷径）4.Theanchoringandadjustmentheuristic（锚定和调整启发）:Whenpeopleareattemptingtoformjudgmentsfromambiguousinformation,theywilloftenreduceambiguitybystartingwiththebeginningreferencepoint,oranchor,andthenadjustingit.Acommonanchorusedinsocialperceptionistheself（自我常常是社会知觉中的参照点，发展从他人角度看问题的能力）.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing

（图式和图式加工）1.Whatisaschema?Mentalframeworkscenteringaroundaspecificthemethathelpustoorganizesocialinformation.Schemascanbeaboutparticularpeople,socialroles,ortheself;attitudesaboutparticularobjects;stereotypesaboutgroups;orperceptionsofcommonevents.人的图式(personschema)：一种表明特定的特质和行为总是联系在一起的心理结构(mentalframeworks)，表现出这种心理结构的人代表一种人的类型。角色图式(roleschemas)：关于处于某种角色的人一般怎样行动、看起来象什么的信息的组织。事件图式(eventschemas)：对于在特定情境所应该发生的事件的期待。脚本是一种事件图式。Ascript(脚本)isastandardsequenceofbehavioroveraperiodoftime,oraschemaaboutextremelycommonevents.Organizationofschemas（图式的组织）:somehierarchicalorganization,alsolikeatangledweb.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing

（图式和图式加工）

2.SchematicprocessingAdvantagesofschematicprocessing（图式加工的优势）1)Schemasaidrecall（图式帮助回忆）.Poorly-andwell-developedschemasinfluencememorydifferently.（没有充分形成的和充分形成的图式对记忆的影响不同）2)Schemasspeedupprocessing.3)Schemasaidautomaticinference.什么情况下最容易发生自动推论?4)Schemasaddinformation,andthenfillinmissinginformation.5)Schemasaidinterpretation.什么图式有助于解释?6)Schemasprovideexpectations.Schemascontainexpectationsforwhatshouldhappen.7)Schemascontainaffect（图式包含感情）.Affectconsistsofthefeelingsaboutthecontentofaschema.Useofaparticularschemacanproduceanemotionalresponse,called“schema-drivenaffect”.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing

（图式和图式加工）2.SchematicprocessingLiabilitiesofschematicprocessing（图式加工的麻烦）Thetendenciestobeoverlyacceptingofinformationthatfitsaschemaortheory,tofillingapsinthinkingbyaddingelementsthatdonotbelongbutareschema-consistent,toapplyschemasevenwhentheydonotfitverywell,andtobeunwillingchangeschemascanallbeliabilities.Wecaneasilybemisledbyoversimplifications.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing3)Factorsthatdeterminewhichschemasareused（决定哪些图式被使用的因素）.Thenatureoftheinformationitselfsuggestsappropriateschemas（信息本身性质会指明相应的图式）.Schemasfollowthenaturalcontours.Whetherapieceofinformationisdistinctiveorsalientintheenvironment.（信息在环境中是否突出、与其他信息是否区分）Primacy（首要信息）:Earlyinformationprovidesastructuretointerpretsubsequentinformation.Earlyusedschemahasmoreinfluencethanschemasappliedafterward.Primingeffect:Recentlyusedschemastendtobeusedinunrelatedsubsequentsituations.Theimportanceoftheinformationbeingprocessed（被加工信息的重要性）.Goalsofthesocialperceiveractivateparticularschemas.（社会知觉者激活特定图式的目标）Individualdifferences（个别差异）:Idiosyncraticuseandneedsforstructureleadpeopletousedifferentschemas.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing4)Whenpeoplearemorelikelytouseschemas（人们在什么情况下更加可能使用图式）?Outcomedependency（判断结果对自己有影响）.Outcomedependencyleadtolessfrequentuseofschemasandmoreattentiontotheinformation.Accountability（说明判断的依据）.Accountabilityand/ortheneedtobeaccurateleadspeopletopaymoreattentiontodataandlessattentiontotheirschemas.Timepressure（时间压力）.Undertimepressure,peopletendtousetheirschemasmore.Availableinformationfitaschemawell（信息很好地符合一个图式）,andtheperceiverisunmotivatedtoexaminethedatathoroughly.III.Schemasandschematicprocessing3.Schemasinaction1)Confirmatoryhypothesistesting（支持性假设检验）.Peoplebehavetowardothersinwaystendtoconfirmthebeliefstheyholdaboutothers.Perceiversemployinteractionstrategiestoelicitinformationfromothersthatpreferentiallysupportstheirschemas.Morethanonehypothesisinmindcounterbalancethenegativeeffectofconfirmatoryhypothesistesting.2)Self-fulfillingprophecies（自我实现的预言）.Aperceiver’sfalseexpectationsaboutanotherpersonleadthatpersontoadoptthoseexpectedattributesandbehaviors.Theprocessofthedevelopmentofthisphenomena.Conditionsunderwhichself-fulfillingpropheciesbecometrue.IV.Potentialpitfallsinsocialinference

（社会推理中的潜在陷阱）1.Rationalversusintuitiveprocessing:Cognitive-experientialself-theory:Oureffortstounderstandtheworldaroundusproceedintwoways.Oneisdeliberate,rationalthinking,whichfollowsbasicrulesoflogic.Theotherisamoreintuitivesystemthatoperatesinaautomatic,holisticmanner–akindofdo-it-by-hunches-or-intuitionkindofapproach.Rationalthinkingisusedinsituationsinvolvinganalyticalthought.Intuitivethinkingisusedinmanyothersituations,includingmostsocialones.2.Dealingwithinconsistentinformation:payingmoreattentiontoit,ormaydiscountitordownplayit.IV.Potentialpitfallsinsocialinference3.Planningfallacy(optimisticbias):Atendencytobeoverlyoptimisticabouthowlongagiventaskwilltake.Weoftenthinkwecandomore,soonerthanwereallycan.4.Thepotentialcostsofthinkingtoomuch:5.Counterfactualthinking:Thetendencytoimagineoutcomesinasituationotherthanthosethatactuallyoccurred–tothinkabout“whatmighthavebeen.”IV.Potentialpitfallsinsocialinference6.Magicalthinking:Suchthinkingmakesassumptionsthatdon’tholduptorationalscrutinybutwhicharecompellingnonetheless.1)lawofcontagion:Whentwoobjectstouch,theypasspropertiestooneanother,andtheeffectsofcontactmaylastwellbeyondtheendofthecontact;2)lawofsimilarity:Thingsthatresembleoneanothersharebasicproperties;3)influencingthephysicalworldthroughthoughts.7.Thoughtsuppression:Effortstoavoidthinkingcertainthoughtssometimesbackfire.Thoughtsuppressioninvolvestwocomponents,1)automaticmonitoringprocess,2)operatingprocess.V.Moodandaffectinfluence