毫无根据的信仰

Unit6GroundlessBelievesAboutthetext

ThepresenttextistakenfromLogicfortheMillionsbyA．E．Mander,publishedbyThePhilosophicalLibrary，NewYork，1947．

A.E.ManderisanEnglishpsychologist,hewritesmanybooks,suchasOurShamDemocracy,Psychologyforeverymanandwoman,AlarmingAustraliaandsoon.AselectionofbooksbyA.E.MandeOnethingwealldoeverydayisexpressourviews，stateourbeliefsordiscussourideas．Wesaytooneanother：Ithink，Ibelieve，I’mconvinced，I’msure，Itgoeswithoutsaying，It’scrystalclear，It’sassimpleasABC，Nodoubt．．．，etc.Wemaynotbeprofessionalthinkers.Butwealldothinkingasahabit．Wemaynothavereachedthelevelofgrade-onethinking．Butwecannotavoidthinking，rightlyorwrongly.

Dowereallyknowwhatwearedoingandwhatwearethinking?Arewesurethatallthebeliefsweholdwithconvictionandacceptwithoutquestionarereallytrueorwell-grounded?Whatconstitutesadequategroundsforbeliefs?

Thearticleismeanttoencourageustofindouthowwecamebyourbeliefsandmanagetobeboldenoughtotestourbeliefs.ThemePart1(Para.1)about:

Part2(Paras.2—21)about:Part3(Paras.22—25)about:TextStructure

Theauthor’spropositionofthegeneralpracticeofthinking

Theauthor’sanalysisoffivenon-rationalfactorsinthedeterminationofpeople’sopinionsTheauthor’sencouragementonclear,freshandrationalwaysofthinkingGroundground:(usu.pl.)thefoundation/underlyingconditionforanargument,acauseorgoodreasonforsth.e.g.1.Whatwerehisgroundsforwantingadivorce?2.Neitherstatementcanbefaultedonthe

groundsthatitisinaccurate.(Lesson3)groundless:a.notbasedonreasonorevidencee.g.groundlessoptimism

Yourfearisprovedtobegroundless.bare:a.naked;notcoveredwithorprotectedbyanything;empty;justefficient,mere…

e.g.barearm/feet/wall/factsthebarebranchesofwintertrees.Thefridgewascompletelybare.Phrases:

withyourbarehands

bareyoursoul:totellyourdeepestandmostprivatefeelings

bareyourteeth:toshowyourteethinafierceandthreateningwaybarefaced:a.公然的，厚颜无耻的，不戴面具的

e.g.abarefacedlieashadowof:theslightesttraceofe.g.Ashadowofasmiletouchedhismouth.Thereisnotashadowofjustificationforyourbehavior.Sheknewbeyondashadowofdoubtthathewasa_____.（愤世嫉俗的人）cynicTheUnitedStatesisaveryreligioussociety.TopSellerHowreligiousareAmericans?93%ofAmericanssaytheybelieveinGod46%attendchurcheveryweekoralmosteveryweek63%thinkthatreligioncananswerallormostoftoday’sproblems68%claimthattheyareamemberofalocalchurch7%saytheyhavenoreligiouspreferenceorbeliefsDescriptionPiechartofthereligiousgroupsintheUnitedStatesDate28October2009ThreeFaithsFactorsintheshapingofAmericanreligiouspatternsImmigration 移民Proselytism 宗教劝诱Denominationalism 宗派主义Religiousfreedom 宗教自由EllipsisMore

examplesEllipsis:afigureofspeechcharacterizedbytheomissionofoneormorewordsthat,whileessentialtothegrammaticalstructureofthesentence,areeasilysuppliedbythereader.

WhatdoIhearduringtheintervalswhenIdoattend?(Ihear)Twosortsofmusic.Theymeltintoeachotherallthetime,and(they)arenoteasytochristen,butIwillcalloneofthem“musicthatremindsmeofsomething”and(Iwillcall)theother“musicitself”.Iusedtobeveryfondofmusicthatremindedmeofsomething,and(Iwas)especiallyfondofWagner.(E.M.Forster,“NotListeningtoMusic”)Ifwehadgrownupinacommunitywherepolygamyorhead-hunting,orinfanticide,orgladiatorialfighting,ordueling,wasregardedasthenormalandnaturalthing—thenweshouldhavegrownuptoregarditas“obviously”naturalandperfectlymoralandproper.(Para.3)Polygamy,head-hunting,infanticide,gladiatorialfightingandduelingarepracticedonlyinsomecommunitiesorpracticedincertainhistoricaltimes.Theyareconsideredimmoral,improperandabnormalelsewhereorinmoderntimes.Polygamy

referstotheconditionsofamanhavingmorethanonewife/concubineorawomanhavingmorethanonehusbandatthesametime.Itspracticeexistedinmanyculturesinancienttimesandinfactstilldoesinsomeculturestodayalthoughmostlyamongwealthypeople.Howevernowitisconsideredbarbarousinmanycountriesandisprohibitedbythelaw.monogamyn.一夫一妻polyandryn.一妻多夫Head-huntingreferstothepracticeofobtainingandpreservingtheheadsofone’senemies.Believedbysomethatthepowerofpersonswhoseheadsweretakenwasaddedtothatalreadypossessedbythesuccessfulwarriororhisvillage.Oncewidelypracticed,itisnowrare.

infanticiderootcide:

tocutinfanticideinsecticidematricidepatricideSuicidepesticide杀婴杀虫剂杀母者杀父者自杀杀虫剂Gladiatorialfighting:GladiatorswerepeoplewhoseprofessionwastofightforthepublicamusementinancientRomantimes.Drawnfromslaves,captives,andcriminals,theywerecarefullytrainedandkepttogetherinbarracksorschools.Theyusuallyfoughtwithnetsandshortswords.Gladiatorialfightingdidnotstopuntilthe5thcentury.HistoryofGladiatorialGamesThefirstgladiatorialgameswereofferedinRomein264B.C.GladiatorialcombatbecameaverypopularformofpublicspectacleveryquicklyinRome.

GladiatorialGamesEnjoytheclipfromthemovie“Gladiator”.Amorecommonoutcomeofthebattlewaswhenonegladiatorwentdownwounded.Hewasallowedtoraiseonefinger,asignofappealformercy,afterwhichtheemperordecidedhisfate,usuallyinaccordancewiththecrowd’swishes.Ifthespectatorsdesiredafighterspared,theypointedtheirthumbsupward,thesignalforthevictortodrophissword.Atthesametimetheyshouted“Mitte!(“Sparehim!”)Ontheotherhand,ifthechoicewasdeath,theyPressedtheirthumbsdownwardandyelled“lugula!”(“Cuthisthroat!”).Anotherpossibleoutcomewaswhenonefighterkilledanopponentoutright;andstillanotherwhenthefallenfighterpretendedtobedead.Fewweresuccessfulatthisruse,forsoldiersfinallyranoutandappliedhotironstothebodies.Anyfakersexposedinthiswaypromptlyhadtheirthroatscut.Thenyoungboyscleanedthebloodstainsfromthesand,andwhiskedawaythecorpses,allinpreparationforthenextroundofbattles.NatureandNurture

Commonsenseandpersonalexperiencetendtosuggestthatnatureandnurturearebothimportant,eachhavingagreaterorlessereffect,dependingbothonthecomplexityofthegeneandtheconditionsoftheenvironment.Howtallmightyoube?Step1Father’sheight+mother’sheight(incm).

Step2Dividethisby2.Step3Add7cmforaboy,subtract7cmforagirl.Nature?Howtallmightyoube?Doestheresultequaltoyourrealheight?2.Doyoubelieveyouaredeterminedbythegenesyouinherit?Spottingoutthetruth!Directions:Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsarescientificallycorrectornot.Youreatinghabitsaregovernedbyyourgenes.Itwouldbeaseasytochangeyourdininghabitsasitwouldtochangeyourbreathing!Geneshavegreatinfluenceonourabilitytowithstandpain.Thisseemstobemuchlessrelatedtoourexperienceswhilewearegrowingup.Yourgeneshaveastrongenougheffectonyourheight.Thisenablesyoutopredictwhattheadultheightofyourchildrenshouldbeiftheyaregivenagooddiet.thepercentageofbodyfatcarriedbyamiddle-agedwomanismoredeterminedbyhergenesthanbydietorexercise.Theneedtowearglassesisnotgenetic.Mostshortsightednessiscausedbyenvironmentalinfluencessuchasusingcomputersorreadingalotsofsmallprint.Question:

Giveexamplesofourmostdeeply-rootedandfundamentalconvictionsthatwehappentohavebeen“broughtup”tothem.1.Moneyisdirty.2.Manwillstruggletoconquernature.3.Manyhandsmakelightwork.4.Wemustsaveeverypennytosupportournationalreconstruction.5.Chinaisalargecountrywithabundantnaturalresources.Itmaybepartofthetraditionalbeliefofthepeopleortherace.(Para.5)Aperson’sracial,cultural,national,political,class,gender,generationidentity,whileenablinghim/hertoseetheworldinauniqueapproach,alsotendstolimithis/hervision.Butweshouldfullyfacethefactthatbeliefswhicharemerelyinheritedfromthepastmusthaveoriginatedatatimewhenmenknewmuchlessthantheyknowtoday.Sothefactthatabeliefis“old”isnoargumentinitsfavor.(Para.5)anappositiveclausewith“fact”asitsantecedentanattributiveclausewith“beliefs”asitsantecedentanattributiveclauseinitiatedbytherelativeadverb“when”with“atime”asitsantecedentwhen:atwhichtimeButweshouldadmitthatthebeliefspassedontousbyourancestorsarebasedonthelimitedknowledgeoftheoldtime.Theirbeliefsmustbelackofstrongsupportssinceitiscertainthatweknowmuchmorethanourancestorsdid.Therefore,weshouldnotadoptabeliefjustbecauseitisold.Whenwefindourselvesentertaininganopinionaboutwhichthereisafeelingthateventoenquireintoitwouldbeabsurd,unnecessary,undesirableorwicked—wemayknowthatopinionisanon-rationalone.(Para.7)Anothercommonmistakewemakeistojudgeopinionsaccordingtoourfeeling.Anopinionistruebecauseitistrue,notbecausewelikeitorfinditdesirableoruseful.Infact,truthcanoftenbeunpleasantorpainfulwhereasuntruthcanbesoothingandattractive.Thatiswhyopinionsareoftenbitterlydebatedorenthusiasticallycherished,preciselybecausetheirtruthfulnessisnotestablished.torealizethatoneisunconsciouslydoingsth.Synecdoche提喻法Afigureofspeechinwhichapartisusedforthewhole(ashandforsailor),thewholeforapart(asthelawforpoliceofficer),thespecificforthegeneral(ascutthroatforassassin),thegeneralforthespecific(asthiefforpickpocket),orthematerialforthethingfromwhichitismade(assteelforsword).提喻法：一种修辞方法，以局部代表整体（如用手代表水手），以整体代表局部（如用法律代表警官），以特殊代表一般（如用直柄剃刀代表杀人者），以一般代表特殊（如用贼代表扒手），或用原材料代表用该材料制造的东西（如用钢代表剑）

Heearnshisbreadbywriting.

Thefarmswereshortofhandsduringtheharvestseason.

Outside,aseaoffaces.Haveyouanycoppers?Theysharethesameroof.Thearmyincludedtwohundredhorseandthreehundredfoot.PutBeethovenontheturntableandturnupthevolume.Theresitsmyanimalguardingthedoortothehenhouse.AmajorlessonAmericansneedtolearnisthatlifeconsistsofmorethancarsandtelevisionsets.[Twospecificitemssubstitutedfortheconceptofmaterialwealth]Manymodernpersonsfinditverydifficulttocreditthefactthatmencaneverhavesupposedotherwise.Yet—theydid.(Para.10)Manymodernpeoplearehardtobelievethatforsometimemenhadeverthoughttheywerethinkingwiththeirhearts.Yetitistruethattheancientpeoplereallythoughtinthatway.tobelievethefact

differentlyAnassumedordogmaticpropositionwhichhadbeenuniversallyacceptedas“obvious”;andwhich,whenchallenged,wassupportedbyreferencetoadogmaofAristotle.UntilGalileoactuallydemonstratedthecontrary,nothingcouldhaveseemedmorebeyondpossibilityordoubt.(Para.12)Itwasapropositionthathadbeenuniversallyacceptedasanobvioustruth.Wheneveritwaschallenged,itwouldbeprovedtruewiththestrongsupportofAristotle’stheory,oneofthemostfirmlyhelddogmas.ItwouldneverbequestionedordoubtediftherewasnoGalileowhoprovedthatthecontrarywastruebymeansofademonstration.Letmeintroducemyself,IamAristotle.Ilivedfrom384—322B.C.,IwasapupilofPlato,anotherGreekphilosopher.MostdonotrealizethatIwasatutorofAlexandertheGreat.Myauthorshipincludesworksonethics,logic,metaphysics,naturalsciences,politics,andpoetry.SomesayIhadaprofoundinfluenceoncurrentWesternthought.Myphilosophicalsystemtheoryfollowsempiricalobservationandlogic—theessentialmethodofrationalinquiry.Aristotle(384B.C.—322B.C.):AristotleVS.Galileo

Galileo(1564—1642)Galileowasanastronomerandmathematician,borninPisa,Italy.HeenteredPisaUniversityasamedicalstudentin1581,andbecameprofessorofmathematicsatPadua(1592—1610),whereheimprovedtherefractingtelescope(1610),andwasthefirsttouseitforastronomy.AmonghisotherdiscoverieswerethelawofuniformlyacceleratedmotiontowardstheEarthandthelawthatallbodieshaveweight.Aristotlevs.GalileowhatexperimentdemonstratesisthatAristotlewaswrong,thatnomatterwhatthedifferenceinweight,twoheavyobjectswillfallsimultaneouslyatthesamespeed..consistv.

a.tobemadeuporcomposed(consistin)

b.havesth.asitschiefelementorfeature(consistof)c.tobecompatible;accord(consistwith)Examples:NewYorkCity_________fiveboroughs.Thebeautyoftheartist’sstyle__________itssimplicity.Truecharitydoesn’t__________almsgiving.

真正的慈善不在于施舍。Theinformation____________heraccount.consistsofconsistsinconsistinconsistswithIndeed,hewouldprobablybehighlyindignantiftoldofwhatanyonefamiliarwithmodernpsychologycanrecognizesoplainly.(Para.14)Hewouldsurelyfeelfuriousifsomeonetoldhimaplainfactthathehadheldsomebeliefsthroughself-interest,whichanyonewhoisfamiliarwithmodernpsychologycanrecognizeveryeasily.attribute

v.a.torelatetoaparticularcauseorsource;attributesth.tob.toregardastheworkofaspecifiedagentorcreatorExamples:Davidattributedhiscompany'ssuccesstotheunityofallthestaffandtheirperseveringhardwork.asymphonyattributedtoMozart

由莫扎特创作的交响乐Examples:

Organizingabilityisessentialattributeforagoodmanager.LightningboltsareanattributeofZeus.

闪电是宙斯的象征n.

a.

aqualityorcharacteristicinherentinorascribedtosb.orsth.b.

anobjectassociatedwithandservingtoidentifyacharacter,apersonage,etc.Valued=valuable=invaluable=pricelessValueless=unvalued=worthlessThelazyandstupidpersoncanreadilyadoptasetofopinionswithoutquestioningwhy,sincetheyclearlyknowthattheseopinionsareunobtainabletothem,onlypeoplewhohaveenergyandabilitycanberewardedwiththeseopinions.Thelazyandbunglingpersoncanadoptasetofopinionswhichprovetohissatisfactionthat“thegrapesaresour”—the“grape”beingtherewardsthatmoreenergeticandcompetentmencanwin.(Para.17)anidiomdescribingthosepeoplewhopretendtodislikewhatonereallydesires,becauseitisunobtainableAhungryFoxsawsomefinebunchesofGrapeshangingfromavinethatwastrainedalongahightrellis(墙/篱的格子）,anddidhisbesttoreachthembyjumpingashighashecouldintotheair.Butitwasallinvain,fortheywerejustoutofreach:sohegaveuptrying,andwalkedawaywithanairofdignityandunconcern,remarking,"IthoughtthoseGrapeswereripe,butIseenowtheyarequitesour."

------Aesop'sFables

Ifwedislikeorenvyaperson,wewilltendtodisregardorattackhisopinions,fromwhichwemayacquireastrongsatisfaction.Whatkeensatisfactionwefindinbelittlingtheopinions,orattackingtheopinions,ofsomebodyofwhomwearejealous,orofsomebodyagainstwhomwebearagrudge!(Para.19)strongsatisfactionkeen:eager;enthusiasticaboutHeisverykeentohelp.Sheisoneofthekeenestsupportersofthatteam.keenisalsooftenusedbeforenoun,itcouldmeanquicktounderstand,strongordeep,orverysensitiveorsharpakeenmind/intellectakeenblade.

keeninterest/satisfactionkeensenseofsmellAkeennorthwind

belittlev.a.

torepresentorspeakofascontemptiblysmallorunimportant;disparageb.tocausetoseemlessthananotherorlittleExamples:Thesizeoftheofficetowerbelittlesthesurroundingbuildings.belittle/minimize/depreciate

belittle

贬低,努力使事缩小到被轻视的地步

minimize

使事情降低到最小程度或者作用，使事情尽可能渺小

depreciate

将某人或某事价值表现为低于常有水平belittle/minimize/depreciateExamples:thehabitof_________lossesinourownforceswhilemaximizingthoseoftheenemyHe___________thevalueofexperience.Apoorbuthonestmanisnottobe_________.minimizing

depreciatesbelittled.

grudgev.a.tobereluctanttogiveoradmitb.toresentforhavingTheretiredofficialgrudgedtoanswerthequestionsaskedbythenewsman.Thebrothergrudgedhissisterherbrilliantacademicrecord.bear(have)agrudgeagainstsb.bear(owe)sb.agrudgen.adeep-seatedfeelingofresentmentorhatredAccordingtotheauthor,therearefivesourcesformanyofourgroundlessbeliefs.Whatarethey?1.Resultofearlyenvironment2.Parroting3.Self-interest4.Sentimentalassociations5.Fashionold-fashioneda.Iamold-fashionedwhenitcomestomusic.Weneedtoreplaceourold-fashionedequipment.infashion:popularatacertaintimeLonghairwasinfashionsomeyearsago,butpeoplelikeshorthairnow.Maryonlybuysclothesthatareinfashion.outoffashion:nolongerpopularSomegirlsliketowearclothesthatareoutoffashion.Onceanopinionisaccepted,whateverbethecauseofitsacceptance,ithasastrongtendencytopersist.(Para.22)nomatterwhatthecauseofitsacceptancemaybeThisisanadverbialclauseofcondition-concession.Insuchaclause,thesubjunctivemoodissometimesusedwhentheverbis“be”.WhateverwillbewillbeWhateverwillbe(主语)willbe(谓语)注:主语是由“whatever”引导的主语从句来充当,be这里作不及物动词.

Whateverwillbewillbe==Anythingthatwillhappenwillhappen.直译:任何会发生的事情都会发生.意译:顺其自然

The“brainpath”becomessowellworn;thepatternofbrain-centersbecomessowellconnectedupbycontinualuse,thatthenervecurrentfindsarouteofpracticallynoresistance,andsoitalwaystakesalmostexactlythesamecourse.(Para.22)Wetendtoholdoldideasbecausetheyarefamiliarandmakeusfeelsecureandcomfortable.Theyarecomfortablebecausewearefollowingthesamebrainpathwhichoffersnoresistance,andourthinkingtendstofollowtheeasypaththewaywaterflowsalongacoursewhichhastheleastresistance.Mostpeoplesufferfrommentalinertiaorculturallag.thoughthabit;thewayyoualwaysthinknervecentersgototh