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IntroductiontoPsychology:Lecture4January29,2007<<backProfessorPaulBloom:IactuallywanttobeginbygoingbacktoFreudandhittingacoupleoflooseends.TherewasapointinmylectureonWednesdaywhereIskippedoversomeparts.Isaid,"Wedon'thavetimeforthis"andIjustwhippedpastit.AndIcouldn'tsleepovertheweekend.I'vebeentormented.Ishouldn'thaveskippedthatandIwanttohit--LetmetellyouwhyIskippedit.ThediscussionIskippedwasthediscussionofwhywewouldhaveanunconsciousatall.So,IwastalkingaboutthescientificallyrespectableideasofFreudandIwanttotalkaboutsomenewideasaboutwhytherecouldbeanunconscious.Now,thereasonwhyIskippeditisI'mnotsurethisisthebestwaytolookatthequestion.Aswewilllearnthroughoutthecourse,byfarthevastmajorityofwhatourbrainsdo,thevastmajorityofwhatourmindsdo,isunconsciousandwe'reunawareofit.Sotherightquestiontoaskmaynotbe,"Whyaresomethingsunconscious?"butrather,whyisthistinysubsetofmentallife--whyisthisconscious?Ontheotherhand,theseclaimsabouttheutilityofunconsciousness,Ithink,areprovocativeandinteresting.SoIjustwantedtoquicklysharethemwithyou.So,thequestionis,fromanevolutionarystandpoint,"Whywouldanunconsciousevolve?"Andananswerthatsomepsychologistsandbiologistshavegivenisdeception.So,mostanimalsdosomedeception.Anddeceptiondefinedbroadlyissimplytoactorbeinsomewaythatfoolsothersintobelievingorthinkingorrespondingtosomethingthat'sfalse.There'sphysicalexamplesofdeception.Whenthreatened,chimpanzees--theirhairstandsuponendandthatmakesthemlookbiggertofoolotherstothinkingthey'remoredangerousthantheyare.There'sananglerfishatthebottomoftheoceanthathasarodstickingupfromthetopofitsheadwithaluretocaptureotherfish鈥?tofooltheminthinkingthatthisissomethingedibleandthentothemselvesbedevoured.Buthumans,primatesingeneralbutparticularlyhumans,aremastersofdeception.Weuseourmindsandourbehaviorsandouractionscontinuallytotrytotrickpeopleintobelievingwhat'snottrue.Wetrytotrickpeople,forinstance,intobelievingthatwe'retougher,smarter,sexier,morereliable,moretrustworthyandsoon,thanwereallyare.Andalargepartofsocialpsychologyconcernsthewayinwhichwepresentourselvestootherpeoplesoastomakethemaximallypositiveimpressionevenwhenthatimpressionisn'ttrue.Atthesametime,though,we'vealsoevolvedverygoodliedetectionmechanisms.Sonotonlyisthereevolutionarypressureformetolietoyou,formetopersuadeyouforinstance,thatifwe'regoingtohavea--ifyouarethreateningmedon'tthreatenme,Iamnotthesortofmanyoucouldscrewaroundwith.Butthere'sevolutionarypressureforyoutolookandsay,"No.Youarethesortofmanyoucouldscrewaroundwith.Icantell."Sohowdoyoubecomeagoodliar?Andhere'swheretheunconsciouscomesin.Thehypothesisis:thebestliesarelieswetellourselves.You'reabetterliar,moregenerally,ifyoubelievetheliethatyou'retelling.ThiscouldbeillustratedwithastoryaboutAlfredHitchcock.Thestorygoes--Hehatedworkingwithchildactorsbutheoftenhadto.Andthestorygoes--Hewasdealingwithachildactorwhosimplycouldnotcry.And,finallyfrustrated,Hitchcockwenttotheactor,leanedover,whisperedinhisear,"Yourparentshaveleftyouandthey'renevercomingback."Thekidburstintotears.Hitchcocksaid,"Roll鈥榚m"andfilmedthekid.Andthekid,ifyouweretoseehim,you'dsay,"That's--Boy,he's--hereallylooksasifhe'ssad"becausehewas.IfIhadacompetitionwhereI'dgive$100,000tothepersonwholooksthemostasiftheyareinpain,itisaverygoodtactictotakeapenandjamitintoyourgroinbecauseyouwilllookextremelypersuasivelyasifyouareinpain.IfIwanttopersuadeyouthatIloveyou,wouldneverleaveyou,youcantrustmewitheverything,itmaybeasuperbtacticformetobelieveit.Andso,thisaccountoftheevolutionoftheunconsciousisthatcertainmotivationsandgoals,particularlysinisterones,arebettermadetobeunconsciousbecauseifapersondoesn'tknowtheyhavethemtheywillnotgivethemaway.AndthisissomethingIthinkweshouldreturntolateronwhenwetalkaboutsocialinteractionandsocialrelationships.OneotherthingonFreud--justastoryofthefalsificationofFreud.IwastakingmyyoungerchildhomefromaplaydateonSundayandheaskedmeoutoftheblue,"Whycan'tyoumarryyourmotheroryourfather?"Now,that'sactuallyadifficultquestiontoask--toanswerforachild,butItriedmybesttogivehimananswer.AndthenIsaid--thenIthoughtbackontheFreudlectureandsoIaskedhim,"Ifyoucouldmarryanybodyyouwant,whowoulditbe?"imagininghe'dmakeexplicittheOedipalcomplexandnamehismother.Instead,hepausedforamomentandsaid,"Iwouldmarryadonkeyandabigbagofpeanuts."[laughter]Bothhisparentsarepsychologistsandhehatesthesequestionsandattimeshejustscrewsaroundwithus.[laughter]Okay.LastclassIstartedwithFreudandnowIwanttoturntoSkinner.AndthestoryofSkinnerandscienceissomewhatdifferentfromthestoryofFreud.Freuddevelopedandchampionedthetheoryofpsychoanalysisbyhimself.Itisascloseasyoucouldfindinsciencetoasolitaryinvention.Obviously,hedrewuponallsortsofsourcesandpredecessorsbutpsychoanalysisisidentifiedasFreud'screation.Behaviorismisdifferent.BehaviorismisaschoolofthoughtthatwastherelongbeforeSkinner,championedbypsychologistslikeJohnWatson,forinstance.Skinnercameabitlateintothisbutthereasonwhywe'veheardofSkinnerandwhySkinnerissowellknownishepackagedthesenotions.Heexpandeduponthem;hepublicizedthem;hedevelopedthemscientificallyandpresentedthembothtothescientificcommunityandtothepopularcommunityandsociologicallyinthe1960sand1970s.IntheUnitedStates,behaviorismwasincrediblywellknownandsowasSkinner.Hewasthesortofpersonyouwouldseeontalkshows.Hisbookswerebestsellers.Now,atthecoreofbehaviorismarethreeextremelyradicalandinterestingviews.Thefirstisastrongemphasisonlearning.Thestrongviewofbehaviorismiseverythingyouknow,everythingyouare,istheresultofexperience.There'snorealhumannature.Rather,peopleareinfinitelymalleable.There'sawonderfulquotefromJohnWatsonandinthisquoteJohnWatsonisparaphrasingafamousboastbytheJesuits.TheJesuitsusedtoclaim,"GivemeachilduntiltheageofsevenandI'llshowyoutheman,"thattheywouldtakeachildandturnhimintoanythingtheywanted.AndWatsonexpandedonthisboast,Givemeadozenhealthyinfants,well-formedandmyownspecifiedworldtobringthemupandI'llguaranteetotakeanyoneatrandomandtrainthemtobecomeanytypeofspecialistImightselect--doctor,lawyer,artist,merchant,chief,andyes,evenbeggar-manandthief,regardlessofhistalents,penchants,tendencies,abilities,vocationsandraceofhisancestors.Now,youcouldimagine--YoucouldseeinthisatremendousappealtothisviewbecauseWatsonhasanextremelyegalitarianviewinasense.Ifthere'snohumannature,thenthere'snosenseinwhichonegroupofhumansbydintoftheirraceortheirsexcouldbebetterthananothergroup.AndWatsonwasexplicit.Noneofthosefactsaboutpeoplewillevermakeanydifference.Whatmatterstowhatyouareiswhatyoulearnandhowyou'retreated.Andso,Watsonclaimedhecouldcreateanybodyinanywaysimplybytreatingtheminacertainfashion.Asecondaspectofbehaviorismwasanti-mentalism.AndwhatImeanbythisisthebehavioristswereobsessedwiththeideaofdoingscienceandtheyfelt,largelyinreactiontoFreud,thatclaimsaboutinternalmentalstateslikedesires,wishes,goals,emotionsandsoon,areunscientific.Theseinvisible,vaguethingscanneverformthebasisofaseriousscience.Andso,thebehavioristmanifestowouldthenbetodevelopasciencewithoutanythingthat'sunobservableandinsteadusenotionslikestimulusandresponseandreinforcementandpunishmentandenvironmentthatrefertorealworldandtangibleevents.Finally,behavioristsbelievedtherewerenointerestingdifferencesacrossspecies.Abehavioristmightadmitthatahumancandothingsthataratorpigeoncouldn'tbutabehavioristmightjustsay,"Look.Thosearejustgeneralassociativepowersthatdiffer"ortheymayevendenyit.Theymightsay,"Humansandratsaren'tdifferentatall.It'sjusthumanstendtoliveinaricherenvironmentthanrats."Fromthatstandpoint,fromthattheoreticalstandpoint,comesamethodologicalapproachwhichis,ifthey'reallthesamethenyoucouldstudyhumanlearningbystudyingnonhumananimals.Andthat'salotofwhattheydid.Okay.I'mgoingtoframemyintroduction--mydiscussionofbehaviorsintermsofthethreemainlearningprinciplesthattheyarguecanexplainallofhumanmentallife,allofhumanbehavior.Andthen,Iwanttoturntoobjectionstobehaviorismbutthesethreeprinciplesarepowerfulandveryinteresting.Thefirstishabituation.Thisistheverysimplestformoflearning.Andwhatthisisistechnicallydescribedasadeclineinthetendencytorespondtostimulithatarefamiliarduetorepeatedexposure."Hey!"[shouting,thenpausing]"Hey!"[shoutingagain]Thesuddennoisestartlesbutasit--asyouhearitasecondtimeitstartlesless.Thethirdtimeisjustmebeinggoofy.It'sjust--It's--Yougetusedtothings.Andthis,ofcourse,iscommonenoughineverydaylife.Wegetusedtothetickingofaclockortonoiseoftrafficbutit'sactuallyaveryimportantformoflearningbecauseimaginelifewithoutit.Imaginelifewhereyounevergotusedtoanything,wheresuddenlysomebodystepsforwardandwavestheirhandandyou'dgo,"Woah,"[asifsurprised]andthentheywavetheirhandagainandyou'dgo,"Whoah,"[asifsurprisedagain]andyoukeep--[laughter]Andthere'stheloudtickingofaclockandyousay,"Hmmm."[actingasifhe'sinterestedinthesoundofaclockticking]Andthat'snotthewayanimalsorhumanswork.Yougetusedtothings.Andit'sactuallycriticallyimportanttogetusedtothingsbecauseit'sausefuladaptivemechanismtokeeptrackonneweventsandobjects.It'simportanttonoticesomethingwhenit'snewbecausethenyouhavetodecidewhetherit'sgoingtoharmyou,howtodealwithit,toattendtoit,butyoucan'tkeeponnoticingit.And,infact,youshouldstopnoticingitafterit'sbeenintheenvironmentforlongenough.So,thiscountsaslearningbecauseithappensthroughexperience.It'sawaytolearnthroughexperience,tochangeyourwayofthinkingthroughexperience.Andalso,it'susefulbecauseharmfulstimuliarenoticedbutwhensomethinghasshownitselftobepartoftheenvironmentyoudon'tnoticeitanymore.Theexistenceofhabituationisimportantformanyreasons.Onethingit'simportantforiscleverdevelopmentalpsychologistshaveusedhabituationasawaytostudypeople,creatureswhocan'ttalklikenonhumananimals,andyoungbabies.AndwhenItalkonWednesdayaboutdevelopmentalpsychologyI'llshowdifferentwaysinwhichpsychologistshaveusedhabituationtostudythemindsofyoungbabies.Thesecondsortoflearningisknownasclassicalconditioning.Andwhatthisisinaverygeneralsenseisthelearningofanassociationbetweenonestimulusandanotherstimulus,wherestimulusisatechnicaltermmeaningeventsintheenvironmentlikeacertainsmellorsoundorsight.ItwasthoughtupbyPavlov.ThisisPavlov'sfamousdogandit'sanexampleofscientificserendipity.Pavlov,whenhestartedthisresearch,hadnointerestatallinlearning.Hewasinterestedinsaliva.Andtogetsalivahehadtohavedogs.Andhehadtoattachsomethingtodogssothattheirsalivawouldpouroutsohecouldstudysaliva.Noideawhyhewantedtostudysaliva,buthethendiscoveredsomething.Whathewoulddoishe'dputfoodpowderinthedog'smouthtogeneratesaliva.ButPavlovobservedthatwhensomebodyenteredtheroomwhotypicallygavehimthefoodpowder,thedog--thefoodpowdersalivawouldstarttocomeout.Andlateronifyou--rightbeforeorrightduringyougivethedogsomefood鈥?youpingabell鈥?thebellwillcausethesalivatocomeforth.And,infact,thisistheapparatusthatheusedforhisresearch.Hedevelopedthetheoryofclassicalconditioningbymakingadistinctionbetweentwosortsofconditioning,twosortsofstimulusresponserelationships.Oneisunconditioned.Anunconditionediswhenanunconditionedstimulusgivesrisetoanunconditionedresponse.Andthisiswhatyoustartoffwith.So,ifsomebodypokesyouwithastickandyousay,"Ouch,"becauseithurts,thepokingandthe"ouch"isanunconditionedstimuluscausinganunconditionedresponse.Youdidn'thavetolearnthat.WhenPavlovputfoodpowderinthedog'smouthandsalivawasgenerated,that'sanunconditionedstimulusgivingrisetoanunconditionedresponse.Butwhathappensthroughlearningisthatanotherassociationdevelops鈥?thatbetweentheconditionedstimulusandtheconditionedresponse.SowhenPavlov,forinstance--Well,whenPavlov,forinstance,startedbeforeconditioningtherewassimplyanunconditionedstimulus,thefoodinthemouth,andanunconditionedresponse,saliva.Thebellwasnothing.Thebellwasaneutralstimulus.Butoverandoveragain,ifyouputthebellandthefoodtogether,prettysoonthebellwillgeneratesaliva.Andnowthebell--When--Youstartoffwiththeunconditionedstimulus,unconditionedresponse.Whentheconditionedstimulusandtheunconditionedstimulusarebroughttogetheroverandoverandoveragain,prettysoontheconditionedstimulusgivesrisetotheresponse.Andnowit'sknownastheconditionedstimulusgivingrisetotheconditionedresponse.ThisisdiscussedindetailinthetextbookbutIalso--I'mgoingtogiveyou--Don'tpanicifyoudon'tgetitquitenow.I'mgoingtogiveyoufurtherandfurtherexamples.So,theideahereis,repeatedpairingsoftheunconditionedstimulusandtheconditionedstimuluswillgiverisetotheresponse.Andthere'sadifferencebetweenreinforcedtrialsandunreinforcedtrials.Areinforcedtrialiswhentheconditionedstimulusandtheunconditionedstimulusgotogether.You're--andtoputitinacrudeway,you'reteachingthedogthatthebellgoeswiththefood.Anunreinforcedtrialiswhenyougetthefoodwithoutthebell.You'renotteachingthedogthis.And,infact,onceyouteachananimalsomething,ifyoustopdoingtheteachingtheresponsegoesawayandthisisknownasextinction.Buthere'sagraph.Ifyouget--Theyreallycountthenumberofcubiccentimetersofsaliva.Thedogistrainedsothatwhenthebellcomeson--Actually,Imisframedit.I'lltryagain.Whenthebellcomesconnectedwithfood,there'salotofsaliva.Anunreinforcedresponseiswhenthebellgoesonbutthere'snofood.So,it's--Imagineyou'rethedog.So,yougetfoodinyourmouth,"bell,food,[makingpantingsound]bell,food,[anotherpantingsound]"andnow"bell[panting]."Butnextyouget"bell,bell,bell."Yougiveitup.Youstop.Youstoprespondingtothebell.Aweirdthingwhichisdiscussedinthetextbookisifyouwaitawhileandthenyoutryitagainwiththebellafteracoupleofhours,thesalivacomesback.Thisisknownasspontaneousrecovery.So,thisallseemsaverytechnicalphenomenarelatedtoanimalsandthelikebutit'seasytoseehowitgeneralizesandhowitextends.Oneinterestingnotionisthatofstimulusgeneralization.AndstimulusgeneralizationisthetopicofoneofyourarticlesinTheNortonReader,theonebyWatson,JohnWatson,thefamousbehaviorist,whoreportedabizarreexperimentwithababyknownasLittleAlbert.Andhere'stheidea.LittleAlbertoriginallylikedrats.Infact,I'mgoingtoshowyouamovieofLittleAlbertoriginallylikingrats.See.[pointingtovideo]He'sokay.Noproblem.Now,Watsondidsomethinginteresting.AsLittleAlbertwasplayingwiththerat,"Oh,Ilikerats,oh,"Watsonwentbehindthebaby--thisisthe--it'sinthechapter--andbangedthemetalbarrighthere[simulatingabangingmotion].Thebaby,"Aah,"screamed,startedtosob.Okay.What'stheunconditionedstimulus?Somebody.Theloudnoise,thebar,thebang.What'stheunconditionedresponse?Crying,sadness,misery.Andasaresultofthis,LittleAlbertgrewafraidoftherat.Sothere--whatwouldbetheconditionedstimulus?Therat.Whatwouldbetheconditionedresponse?Fear.Excellent.Moreover,thisfearextendedtootherthings.So,thisisaveryweirdandunpersuasiveclip.Buttheideais--theclipistomakethepointthatthefearwillextendtoarabbit,awhiterabbit.So,thefirstpart,LittleAlbert'sfinewiththewhiterabbit.Thesecondpartisafterhe'sbeenconditionedandhe'skindoffreakedoutwiththewhiterabbit.Theproblemisinthesecondpartthey'rethrowingtherabbitathimbut[lookingatthevideo]nowhe'sokay.[laughter][Speakingtoateachingassistant]Isthemicon?Oh.Thisisfine.Thisisoneofalonglistofexperimentsthatwecan'tdoanymore.So,classicalconditioningismorethanalaboratoryphenomena.Thefindingsofclassicalconditioninghavebeenextendedandreplicatedinallsortsofanimalsincludingcrabs,fish,cockroachesandsoon.Andit'sbeenarguedtobeanextensionof--it'sarguedtounderliecertaininterestingaspectsofhumanresponses.So,Ihavesomeexampleshere.Oneexampleisfear.So,theLittleAlbertidea--TheLittleAlbertexperiment,providesanillustrationforhowphobiascouldemerge.Someproportionofpeopleinthisroomhavephobias.Imagineyou'reafraidofdogs.Well,apossiblestoryforthe--forwhyyoubecameafraidofdogsisthatonedayadogcameupandhewasaneutralstimulus.Noproblem.Andallofasuddenhebityou.Nowthepainofabite,beingbit,andthenthepainandfearofthatisanunconditionedstimulus,unconditionedresponse.You'rejustbornwiththat,"ow."Butthepresenceofthedogthereisaconditionedstimulusandsoyougrewtobeafraidofdogs.Ifyoubelievethis,thisalsoformsthebasisforwaysforatheoryofhowyoucouldmakephobiasgoaway.Howdoyoumakeconditionedstimulus,conditionedresponsethingsgoaway?Well,whatyoudoisyouextinguishthem.Howdoyouextinguishthem?Well,youshowthethingthatwouldcauseyoutohavethefearwithouttheunconditionedstimulus.Here'sanillustration.It'sajoke.Sorry.[pointingtowardsaslidecontainingacomicofamantrappedinasmallbooth,filledwithsnakes,danglingfromthetopofabuilding]He'ssimultaneouslyconfrontingthefearofheights,snakes,andthedarkbecausehe'strappedinthatthingandthelogicis--thelogicof--thelogicisnotbad.He'sstuckinthere.Thoseareallthe--hisconditionedstimulus.Butnothingbadhappenssohisfeargoesaway.Theproblemwiththisiswhilehe'sstuckintherehehasthisscreaming,horrificpanicattackandthenitmakeshisfearmuchworse.So,whattheydonowthough,andwe'lltalkaboutthismuchlaterinthecoursewhenwetalkaboutclinicalpsychology--butonecureforphobiasdoesdrawupon,inamoreintelligentway,thebehavioristliterature.So,theclaimaboutaphobiaisthatthere'sabadassociationbetween,saydogandfear,orbetweenairplanesorsnakesandsomebadresponse.So,whattheydoiswhat'scalled,"systematicdesensitization,"whichistheyexposeyoutowhatcausesyouthefearbuttheyrelaxyouatthesametimesoyoureplacetheaversiveclassicalconditionedfearwithsomethingmorepositive.Traditionally,theyusedtoteachpeoplerelaxationexercisesbutthatprovestoodifficult.Sonowadaystheyjustpumpyoufullofsomedrugtogetyoureallyhappyandsoyou'rereallystonedoutofyourhead,you're[makes"sick"noise]andthisisn'tsobad.It'smorecomplicatedthanthatbutthenotionisyoucanusetheseassociativetoolsperhapstodealwithquestionsaboutfear,phobiasandhowtheygoaway.Hunger.We'llspendsometimeinthiscoursediscussingwhyweeatandwhenweeat.Andoneanswertowhyweeatandwhenweeatisthatthere'scuesintheenvironmentthatareassociatedwitheating.Andthesecuesgeneratehunger.Forthoseofyouwhoaretryingtoquitsmoking,you'llnoticethatthere'stime--ortoquitdrinkingthere'stimesofthedayorcertainactivitiesthatreallymakeyouwanttosmokeorreallymakeyouwanttodrink.Andfromabehavioristpointofviewthisisbecauseoftheassociativehistoryofthesethings.Morespeculatively,classicalconditioninghasbeenarguedtobeimplicatedintheformationofsexualdesire,includingfetishes.Soabehavioriststoryaboutfetishes,forinstance,isit'sstraightforwardclassicalconditioning.Justasyourlover'scaressbringsyoutoorgasm,youreyeshappentofalluponashoe.Throughthesimpletoolsofclassicalconditioningthen,theshoebecomesaconditionedstimulusgivingrisetotheconditionedresponseofsexualpleasure.Thisalmostcertainlyisnottherightstorybutagain,justasinphobias,someideasofclassicalconditioningmayplaysomeroleindeterminingwhatwelikeandwhatwedon'tlikesexually.Andinfact,onetreatmentforpedophilesandrapistsinvolvedcontrolledfantasiesduringmasturbationtoshifttheassociationfromdominationandviolence,forinstance,todevelopmorepositiveassociationswithsexualpleasure.Sothestrongclassicalconditioningstoriesaboutfetishesandfearssoundsillyandextremeandtheyprobablyarebutatthesametimeclassicalconditioningcanbeusedatleasttoshapethefocusofourdesiresandofourinterests.Finalthoughtactuallyis--Oh,yeah.Okay.So,whatdowethinkaboutclassicalconditioning?Wetalkedaboutwhathabituationisfor.What'sclassicalconditioningfor?Well,thetraditionalviewisit'snotforanything.It'sjustassociation.So,whathappensistheUCS[unconditionedstimulus]andtheCS[conditionedstimulus],thebellandthefood,gotogetherbecausetheyhappenatthesametime.Andsoclassicalconditioningshouldbethestrongestwhenthesetwoaresimultaneousandtheresponsetooneisthesameastheresponsetotheother.Thisisactuallynolongerthemainstreamview.Themainstreamviewisnowalittlebitmoreinteresting.It'sthatwhathappensinclassicalconditioningispreparation.Whathappensisyoubecomesensitivetoacuethataneventisabouttohappenandthatallowsyoutopreparefortheevent.Thismakescertainpredictions.Itpredictsthatthebesttimingiswhentheconditionedstimulus,whichisthesignal,comesbeforetheunconditionedstimulus,whichiswhatyouhavetopreparefor.Anditsaystheconditionedresponsemaybedifferentfromtheunconditionedresponse.So,moveawayfromfood.Imagineachildwho'sbeingbeatenbyhisfather.Andwhenhisfatherraiseshishandheflinches.Well,that'sclassicalconditioning.Whathappenedinthatcaseishehaslearnedthattheraisingofahandisasignalthatheisabouttobehitandsoherespondstothatsignal.Hisflinchisnotthesameresponsethatonewouldgiveifone'shit.Ifyou'rehit,youdon'tflinch.Ifyou'rehit,youmightfeelpainorbouncebackorsomething.Flinchingispreparationforbeinghit.And,ingeneral,theideaofwhatgoesoninclassicalconditioningisthattheresponseissortofapreparation.Theconditionedresponseisapreparationfortheunconditionedstimulus.Classicalconditioningshowsupallovertheplace.Asafinalexercise,andIhadtothinkaboutit--Hasanybodyhereseenthemovie"ClockworkOrange"?Alotofyou.It'skindofashockingmovieandunpleasantandveryviolentbutatitscoreoneofthemainthemesisrightoutofIntroPsych.It'sclassicalconditioning.Andamaincharacter,whoisaviolentmurdererandrapist,isbroughtinbysomepsychologistsforsometherapy.Andthetherapyhegetsisclassicalconditioning.Inparticular,whathappensisheisgivenadrugthatmakeshimviolentlyill,extremelynauseous.Andthenhiseyesareproppedopenandhe'sshownscenesofviolence.Asaresultofthissortofconditioning,hethen鈥?whenheexperiencesrealworldviolence鈥?herespondswithnauseaandshock;basically,traininghimtogetawayfromtheseactsofviolence.Inthisexample--Takeamoment.Don'tsayitaloud.Justtakeamoment.What'stheunconditionedstimulus?Okay.Anybody,what'stheunconditionedstimulus?Somebodyjustsayit.Thedrug.What'stheunconditionedresponse?Nausea.What'stheconditionedstimulus?Violence.What'stheconditionedresponse?[nausea]Perfect.Thethirdandfinaltypeoflearningisknownasoperantconditioningorinstrumentalconditioning.Andthisisthething,thisisthetheorychampionedanddevelopedmostextensivelybySkinner.Whatthisisislearningtherelationshipsbetweenwhatyoudoandhowsuccessfulorunsuccessfultheyare,learningwhatworksandwhatdoesn't.It'simportant.Thisisverydifferentfromclassicalconditioningandonewaytoseehowthisisdifferentisforclassicalconditioningyoudon'tdoanything.Youcouldliterallybestrappeddownandbeimmobileandtheseconnectionsarewhatyouappreciateandyoumakeconnectionsinyourmind.Instrumentalconditioningisvoluntary.Youchoosetodothingsandbydintofyourchoices.Somechoicesbecomemorelearnedthanothers.So,theideaitselfwasdevelopedinthenicestformbyThorndikewhoexploredhowanimalslearn.Rememberbehavioristswereentirelycomfortablestudyinganimalsanddrawingextrapolationstootheranimalsandtohumans.So,hewouldputacatinapuzzlebox.Andthetricktoapuzzleboxisthere'sasimplewaytogetoutbutyouhavetokindofpullonsomething,somespeciallever,tomakeitpopopen.AndThorndikenotedthatcatsdonotsolvethisproblemthroughinsight.Theydon'tsitintheboxforawhileandmullitoverandthenfigureouthowtodoit.Instead,whattheydoistheybounceallarounddoingdifferentthingsandgraduallygetbetterandbetteratit.So,whattheydois,thefirsttimetheymightscrat
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