英文翻译-松江区人口结构变迁与公共教育资源均衡配置研究

EquityandQualityinEducationSupportingDisadvantagedStudentsandSchoolsFOREWORDGlobalizationoftheeconomy,increasinglydiverseandinterconnectedpopulations,andrapidtechnologicalchangeareposingnewanddemandingchallengestoindividualsandsocietiesalike.Schoolsystemsarerethinkingtheknowledgeandskillsstudentswillneedforsuccessandtheeducationalstrategiesandsystemsrequiredforallchildrentoachievethem.InbothAsiaandNorthAmerica,urbanschoolsystemsareatthelocusofchangeinpolicyandpractice–atoncethesitesofthemostcriticalchallengesineducationandtheenginesofinnovationneededtoaddressthem.Therefore,AsiaSocietyorganizedtheGlobalCitiesEducationNetwork,anetworkofurbanschoolsystemsinNorthAmericaandAsiatofocusonchallengesandopportunitiesforimprovementcommontothem,andtovirtuallyallcityeducationsystems.Acriticalelementofhigh-performingschoolsystemsisthattheynotonlybenchmarkthepracticesofothercountries,buttheysystematicallyadaptandimplementthesepracticeswithintheirownculturalandpoliticalcontexts.TheGlobalCitiesEducationNetworkisintendedasamechanismforeducatorsanddecision-makersinAsiaandNorthAmericatocollaborativelydream,design,anddeliverinternationallyinformedsolutionstocommonchallengeswithwhicheducationsystemsarecurrentlygrappling.TheNetworkengagesincyclesofin-depthinquiry,planning,andactiontoaddressspecifictopicsrelatedtothethemesoftransforminglearningandachievingequity.Eachcycleinvolvesknowledgesharingandproblemsolving,includingatGlobalCitiesEducationNetworkSymposiaandtheproductionofresearchandknowledgeproductssuchascasestudies,backgroundpapers,andmeetingreports.Theoverarchinggoalistodeveloppracticalwisdomfromtheresearchandexperienceoftheworld’sleadingexpertswhichreflectsprovenorpromisingeffortsinNetworkcities,thatcanbeusedtoenhancetheeffectivenessofNetworkandcityschoolsystemsworld-wide.ThisreportpresentsthekeyrecommendationsoftheOECDpublicationEquityandQualityinEducation:SupportingDisadvantagedStudentsandSchools(2012a),whichmapsoutpolicyleversthatcanhelpbuildhighqualityandequitableeducationsystems,withaparticularfocusonNorthAmericanandAsian-Pacificcountries.IthasbeenpreparedbytheOECDEducationDirectoratewithsupportfromtheAsiaSocietyasaBackgroundReportforthefirstAsiaSocietyGlobalCitiesNetworkSymposium,HongKong,May10-12,2012.AsiaSocietyisgratefulforOECD’sleadershipininternationalbenchmarkingandforourongoingpartnership.WewouldliketothankthesponsorsoftheGlobalCitiesEducationNetworkincluding:JPMorganChaseFoundation,MetLifeFoundation,CarnegieCorporation,PearsonFoundation,andHewlettFoundation.WehopethatthisseriesofreportsprovidesknowledgeandexperienceusefultocitiesinAsia,NorthAmerica,andelsewhereeagertocreatetheconditionsthatwillpromotesuccessforallstudentsintoday’sinterconnectedworld.1.EQUITYINEDUCATION:AKEYCHALLENGEThehighestperformingeducationsystemsarethosethatcombinequalitywithequity.Equityineducationmeansthatpersonalorsocialcircumstancessuchasgender,ethnicoriginorfamilybackground,arenotobstaclestoachievingeducationalpotential(definitionoffairness)andthatallindividualsreachatleastabasicminimumlevelofskills(definitionofinclusion).Intheseeducationsystems,thevastmajorityofstudentshavetheopportunitytoattainhighlevelskills,regardlessoftheirownpersonalandsocio-economiccircumstances.WithintheAsia-Pacificregion,forexample,Korea,Shanghai-ChinaandJapanareexamplesofAsianeducationsystemsthathaveclimbedtheladdertothetopinbothqualityandequityindicators.InNorthAmerica,Canadaisamongsuchcountriesaswell.TheUnitedStatesisabovetheOECDmeaninreadingperformancebutbelowthemeanwithregardtoequity.Yet,eveninhighperformingsystemsasignificantnumberofstudentsfailtoobtainaminimumlevelofeducation,jeopardizingtheirownfutureandtheprogressoftheirsociety.Thedegreeofinclusionofaneducationsystemcanbemeasuredbythepercentageoflowperformersandindividualswhodonotattainuppersecondaryeducation(OECD,2012a).InPISA2009,19%of15-year-oldstudentsscoredbelowLevel2inreadingacrossOECDcountries,whichsignalsthatalmostoneoutoffiveyoungstersacrossOECDcountrieslacksbasicliteracyskills,andinsomecountriesthisproportionevenexceeded25%(SeeFigure1.3).Itisverylikelythatthoselackingbasicskillsatthisagewilleitherdropoutfromtheeducationsystemandnotfinishuppersecondaryschool,enteringtheworkforcewithlowskillsandunprepared,orwillcontinuestudyingbutstrugglingmorethantheirpeersandneedingadditional(andmoreexpensive)support.Indeed,thepercentageof25-34years-oldsthathavenotattaineduppersecondaryeducationreachesalmost20%ofyoungpeopleacrossOECDcountries(SeeFigure1.2),althoughitvariesmarkedly,from3%inKoreato62%inTurkey(OECD,2011a).Students’backgroundhasasignificantimpactontheiracademicachievementinmanycountries,andoften,lowsocio-economicbackgroundandlowperformanceconvergeinspecificpopulationgroups.Theincreasedlikelihoodofdisadvantagedstudentstoperformbelowlevel2canbeinterpretedasanindicatoroffairnessofaneducationsystem(OECD,2012a).Forexample,inKorea,thefewstudentsthatdonotachievebasicskillsareoftendisadvantagedstudents.Inthiscountry,studentsfromlowsocio-economicstatusarealmost3.5timesmorelikelytobelowperformersthantheirpeerswithahighstatus(SeeFigure1.3).Reducingschoolfailurepaysoffforbothsocietyandindividualandcontributestoeconomicgrowthandsocialdevelopment.Theeconomicandsocialcostsofschoolfailureanddropoutarehigh,whereasinvestingearlyineducation(Heckman,2011)andupuntiluppersecondaryeducationcompletionisefficient.Individualswithatleastuppersecondaryeducationhavebetteremploymentandhealthierlifestyleprospects,resultingingreatercontributionstopublicinvestmentthroughhighertaxes.Moreeducatedpeoplecontributetosustainableeconomies,andarelessdependentonpublicaidandlessvulnerabletoeconomicdownturnswhichinturncontributetomoreequitablesocieties(OECD,2011b). EducationisacentralelementofOECDcountries’growthstrategies.Tobeeffectiveinthelongrun,improvementsineducationneedtoenableallstudentstohaveaccesstoqualityeducationearly,tostayinthesystemuntilatleasttheendofuppersecondaryeducation,andtoobtaintheskillsandknowledgetheywillneedforeffectivesocialandlabourmarketintegration.This can bedonewithtwoparallelstrategies:Bydesigningeducationsystemsthatareconducivetoequity:Morespecifically,somesystemicpractices,suchasearlytracking,repetition,certainschoolchoiceschemesorlowqualityvocationaleducationandtrainingtendtoamplifysocialandeconomicdisadvantagesandareconducivetoschoolfailure.Section2reviewssystemlevelpracticesthathinderequityandprovidesfiverecommendationstopreventfailureandpromotethecompletionofuppersecondaryeducation.Thiscanhelpreinforceequityacrossthesystemandbenefitdisadvantagedstudentswithouthinderingotherstudents’progress.Byfocusingonandsupportingdisadvantagedschools:Schoolswithhigherproportionsofdisadvantagedstudentsareatgreaterriskofproblemsthatcanresultinunderperformance,affectingeducationsystemsasawhole.Lowperformingdisadvantagedschoolsoftenlacktheinternalcapacityorsupporttoimprove,asschoolleadersandteachersandtheenvironmentsofschools,classroomsandneighbourhoodsfrequentlyfailtoofferaqualitylearningexperienceforthemostdisadvantaged.Section3proposesfivepolicyrecommendationsthathaveshowntobeeffectiveinsupportingtheimprovementoflowperformingdisadvantagedschools.Whiletheseapplytoallschools,theyareparticularlyrelevantforlowperformingdisadvantagedschools,wheretheymaybehardertoachievebutcandeliverimprovements.Addressingthesechallengesisadifficultendeavourinanycountry.Improvementsacrossanentireeducationsystemcancomeonlywithstrongandconsistentpoliticalsupportandleadershipsustainedovertime.Italsorequirespolicydesignandimplementationthatisalignedtogovernancestructures.Inthisregard,settinghighachievementtargetsorstandardsisimportanttoraisethebarandsignalequitypriorities(Section4).2.TACKLINGSYSTEMLEVELPOLICIESTHATHINDEREQUITYINEDUCATIONEducationsystemsandthepathwaysthroughthemneedtobedesignedinawaythatbothenhancesequityandraisesstudents’success.Yet,somesystemlevelpolicies,suchasgraderepetitionorearlytracking,tendtoamplifysocio-economicdisparitiesandareconducivetodisengagementanddropout,whereasotherpoliciesseemtomitigatethem(CausaandChapuis,2009).Thissectionpresentsanddevelopsfivespecificsystemlevelpolicyleversthatcanreduceinequitiesineducationandcontributetoimproveoverallperformance.2.1.EliminategraderepetitionChallenge:graderepetitionisacommonpracticeinmanyOECDcountriesGraderepetitionoccurswhenstudents,afteraformalorinformalassessment,areheldbackinthesamegradeforanadditionalyear,ratherthanbeingpromotedtothenextstagealongwiththeirpeers.GraderepetitionispractisedinmanyOECDcountries:13%of15-year-oldsarereportedtohaverepeatedatleastoneyeareitherinprimaryorsecondaryschool(Figure2.2).ThisproportionisparticularlyhighinthepartnereconomyMacao-China,whereitaffectsover40%ofstudents.Schoolsystemsthatextensivelyuserepetitionareassociatedwithlowlevelsofeducationalperformance(OECD,2010b),whilestrategiestosupporteachindividualprevailincountrieswithhigherperformancelevels.Evidence:highandlastingcosts,whilebenefitsareslightandshort-livedThecostsofgraderepetitionarelargeforbothindividualsandsociety.First,thedirectcostsforschoolsystemsareveryhigh,astheseincludeprovidinganadditionalyearofeducationanddelayingentrytothelabourmarketbyayear.Second,itincreasesthelikelihoodofearningnoqualificationoronlyalowersecondaryone,whiletheacademicbenefitsofgraderetentionareslightandshort-livedastheseaccruefromgoingoverthesamecurriculaasecondtime(JacobandLefgren,2009).Third,graderetentionwidensinequitiesbecausestudentswithlowsocio-economicbackgrounds,poorlyeducatedparentsorimmigrantbackgrounds,andboys,aresignificantlymorelikelytorepeatthanothers(OECD,2011d).Inmanycountries,schoolshavefewincentivestotakeintoaccountthehighcostsgraderepetitionbearsonthesystem.Ononehand,boththeadditionalandopportunitycostsdonotdecreasethefundingthatindividualschoolsreceive(Field,KuczeraandPont,2007),whilealternativepracticesthatcanreducetheuseofrepetitionveryoftenhavedirectcostsforschools.Ontheotherhand,teacherswidelysupportthepracticeastheyobservetheimmediategainsbutnotthelong-termnegativeeffects(Jimerson,AndersonandWhipple,2002),andmovingweakerstudentstothefollowingyearwouldrequirethemtoteachinmorechallengingmixed-abilityenvironments,forwhichtheymaynotbepreparedorsupported.Preventivemeasures:ensurecontinuousassessmentandsupportstrategies.Themostsuccessfulalternativesarefocusedonpreventiontomakerepetitionunnecessary,providingtheneededsupporttothosefallingbehindbeforetheendoftheschoolyearandputtingthembackontrackontime,beforethelearninggapswiden,asdoneinFinlandandJapan(SeeBox2.1).Continuousassessmentofstudents’needscanfacilitatethedesignandimplementationoftailoredsupportprogrammesasearlyaspossible.Theseincludeimprovingteachers’skillstoteachinclassroomswithmorediverseattainmentlevels,extendinglearningopportunitiesaswellasdiversifyingthestrategiestosupportlearning,andstrengtheningstudents’meta-cognitiveskills.Promotionwithsupport.Repetitionratescanbereducedbyrestrictingthecriteriathatdeterminewhetherastudentistobeheldbackandbyestablishingfurtheropportunitiestomoveforward.However,promotionshouldbecombinedwithastructuredandengagingplanofsupporttocorrecteducationaldeficitsandmeettheeducationalstandards.Also,repetitioncanbelimitedtothesubjectsormodulesfailedinsteadofyear-repetition.Forexample,inCanada,NewZealandandtheUnitedStates,retentionisusuallyrestrictedtothespecificclassesthatthestudentfailed.Astudentcanbe,forinstance,promotedinamathclassbutretainedinalanguageclass.Reversingthecultureofgraderepetitioninschools.Educationalauthoritiesshouldraiseteacherawarenessofitsconsequences,offersupportandresources,andalsoincludeteachersandschoolleadersinsearchingforalternativestohelpstudentswithlearningdifficulties.Inaddition,financialincentivesandtargetsforreductionofrepetitioncanbeintroducedintoaccountabilitysystems.Forexample,inFrancerepetitionlevelshavesubstantiallydecreasedsincespecifictargetstoholdschoolsaccountableforgraderepetitionrateswereestablishedinparallelwithindividualisedsupportandcatchupopportunities.2.2AvoidearlytrackinganddeferstudentselectiontouppersecondaryChallenge:earlystudentselectionisacommonpracticeStudentselectionreferstotrackingstudentsintodifferentstudyprogrammesorgroupingthemintoclassroomsaccordingtotheirabilities,eitherinallorfewsubjects.SelectionoccursinallOECDcountries,butthereareimportantdifferencesbetweencountriesinthetimingandformofthisselection.Withanaverageageoffirstformalselectionat14yearsacrossOECD(OECD,2010b),somecountries,suchasFinland,NorwayorSpain,havenon-selectiveandcomprehensiveschoolsystemsuptotheendoflowersecondaryeducation.OthercountriessuchasAustriaandGermany,respondtothediversitychallengebysortingchildrenbetweendifferentcurriculaorlevelsofdifficultywhentheyarejust10yearsold,withtheaimofservingthemaccordingtotheirlearningneedsandacademicpotential.Also,intheUnitedStatesandCanada,forexample,morethan90%of15year-oldstudentsareinschoolsthatgroupstudentsbyability(SeeFigure2.3).Theseearlytrackingpracticesmayresultingreaterinequitiesandastrongerinfluenceofsocioeconomicbackgroundoneducation.Evidence:academicselectionwidensachievementgapsandinequitiesProponentsofgroupingstudentsaccordingtotheirperformancesuggestthatstudentslearnbetterwhengroupedwithotherslikethemselvesandwhenteachingcanbeadaptedtotheirneeds.Incontrast,evidenceshowsthatearlystudentselectionhasanegativeimpactonstudentsassignedtolowertracks,withoutraisingtheperformanceofthewholestudentpopulation(HanushekandWoessmann,2006).Lessdemandingtrackstendtoprovidelessstimulatinglearningenvironmentsandfuelaviciouscycleintheexpectationsofteachersandstudents.Also,students’placedinlessdemandingtracksdonotbenefitfromthepositiveeffectsofbeingaroundmorecapablepeers(HanushekandWoessmann,2006).Evidenceshowsthatthetrackwherestudentsareassignedhasagreatimpactontheireducationalandlifeprospects(ShavitandMüller,2006).Inaddition,selectionexacerbatesinequitiessincestudentsfromdisadvantagedbackgroundsaremorelikelytobeplacedintheleastacademicallyorientedtracksorgroups(SpinathandSpinath,2005).Forexample,studentswithanimmigrantbackground,whentrackedatanearlystage,maybelockedintoalowereducationalenvironmentbeforetheyhavehadachancetodevelopthelinguistic,socialandculturalskillstoattaintheirmaximumpotential(OECD,2010c).Delayselectionandadoptcomprehensiveschoolinguntiluppersecondaryschool.ManyOECDcountrieshaveadoptedcomprehensiveeducationmeasures,andraisedtheageoffirsttrackingorpostponedittoalaterstageoftheeducationalprocess–mostcommonlytotheendoflowersecondaryeducation.TheNordiccountrieswereamongthefirsttomakethechangeinthe1970sandbecameareferenceofcomprehensiveeducationsystems.OneofthemostrecentreformswasundertakeninPoland,whereearlytrackingwaspostponedoneyear,untiltheageof15.Thereformraisedstudents’performancesubstantially,particularlyforthosestudentsthatwouldhavebeenassignedintovocationaltracks,withouthinderingtheperformanceoftopachievers(Wisniewski,2007).Reducethelevelofearlytrackingbyeliminatinglowleveltracks.Incontextswherekeystakeholdersmaybereluctanttoendearlytracking,suppressinglow-leveltracksorgroupsorensuringthattheseofferequivalenteducationopportunitiesandoutcomestootherpathwayscanmitigatesomeofthenegativeeffectsoftracking.Thiscouldbeparticularlybeneficialinsystemsinwhichtherearedifferentandveryimpermeabletracksinahierarchy.Inrecentyears,Austria,Luxembourg,SlovakRepublicandsomeGermanstateshavetakenstepsinthisdirection.Limitthenegativeeffectsofearlyselection.Incountrieswherestudentsaretracked,streamedorgroupedbyabilityearly,avarietyofpoliciesandpracticescanbeexploredtolimitthenegativeeffectsandembracedifferentiatedinstructioninmixed-abilitysettings.Oneoptionistolimitabilitygroupingtospecificsubjectsorreplaceitwithshort-termflexiblegroupingforspecificpurposes,whileclassesremainheterogeneous.Forinstance,Nordiccountriesusetemporarygroupingswiththepossibilityofchanginggroups,whichallowflexibilitytomeetspecificacademicneedsduringtheschoolyear.Anotheroptionconsistsinincreasingflexibilitytochangetracksorclassrooms,andimprovingtheselectionmethodsforthedifferenttracksorgroups.Afurtheroptionistoensurethatalltracksgivestudentsachallengingcurriculumandhighqualityinstruction.2.3.ManageschoolchoicetoavoidsegregationandincreasedinequitiesChallenge:schoolchoiceisarealityinOECDcountriesInthelast25years,morethantwo-thirdsofOECDcountrieshaveincreasedtheextentofparentalschoolchoiceinpublicly(andinsomecountriesalsoprivately)fundedschools.Advocatesoftenarguethatschoolchoicewouldallowallstudents–includingdisadvantagedonesandthoseattendinglowperformingschools–tooptforhigherqualityschools,astheintroductionofchoiceineducationcanfosterefficiency,spurinnovationandraisequalityoverall.Theevidencehowevershowsthatchoice,ifnotwellmanaged,cangenerategreaterinequalities,withoutnecessarilyraisingoverallperformance.Researchhasshownthatoversubscribedschoolsareselectiveintheiradmissionsandtendtopreferstudentswhoareeasiertoteachandmoreabletolearn,crowdingoutstudentswithlowperformance教育的公平与质量———支持弱势学生与学校前言：全球化的经济、日益密切的人群联系以及快速的技术变革正在给人类和整个社会带来巨大的挑战。教育系统正在反思目前学生所具备的知识和技能能否成功达到教育战略对儿童培养的要求。在亚洲和北美地区，城市的教学系统是遵循政策实施的轨迹的。这就是在最关键的挑战和最创新的工程所需要解决的问题。因此，亚洲协会举办的全球城市教育网组织，一个在北美和亚洲的网站，去动用所有的城市教育资源从中寻找机遇与挑战并改善他们。一个高效的教学系统的关键因素是，他们不仅将其他国家的做法用作参考，而且在自己的文化和政治背景下适应并且实施这些做法。全球城市教育网的目的是一种为教育工作者设计的机制，同时亚洲和北美洲的决策者为了协作的提供一种符合国际实情的解决方案，而且这一教育系统与目前的教育资源结合情况良好。将网络技术运用到深入地调查、计划和执行以解决某些关于如何实现教育公平的主题上。在全球城市网络教育研讨会上以案例研究等形式，每轮会议的议题都包括知识的分享和问题的解决。其总体目标是从研究和经验中发展处实际的智慧，并以此证明网络城市是有前途的，并可以用来加强网络的有效性以及发展世界各地的城市教育系统。本报告主要介绍了来自经合组织关于公平教育的主要建议：支持弱势的学校和学时（2012年）这反应了目前的政策水平，这对于构建高品质和公平的教育系统非常有帮助，尤其是北美和亚太国家。在以亚洲协会全球城市网络作为主体的研讨会上，在经合组织教育部门的支持下，这个想法已经进入筹备阶段。我们要感谢全球城市教育网络的赞助商包括：摩根大通基金会，大都会人寿基金会，卡内基公司，皮尔森基金会和休利特基金会。我们希望这一系列报告提供的知识有助于在亚洲和北美乃至其他国家的城市中创造促进所有学生公平教育的条件。教育公平：一个关键的挑战高效的教育体系是指那些质量与公平相结合。教育公平是指个人或社会的情况，如性别，种族或家庭背景不构成实现教育潜力（公平的定义）和所有个人达到技能（包括定义）至少有一个基本的最低水平的障碍。在这些教育系统中，学生绝大多数有机会获得高层次的技能，无论自己的个人和社会经济情况。以亚太地区为例，韩国，上海，中国和日本的教育系统是在质量和公平上以达到较高水准的几个例子。在北美，加拿大这样的国家也是如此。然而，即使是在高性能系统中，一定数量的学生仍然无法获得最基本的教育，这将阻碍他们的未来以及整个社会的进步。纳入教育体系的程度可以通过无法获得高中教育个体的数量占整体的百分比来衡量（经济合作与发展组织，2012）。2009年的国际学生评估项目中，经济合作与发展组织国家中，19％的15岁学生在阅读项目中获得了低于等级二的成绩，这就意味着几乎五分之一的经合组织国家中的青年人缺乏基本的识字能力，在某些国家这个比例甚至高于25%。那些缺乏基本技能的青年会从教育系统中辍学，并且不会完成高中教育，他们仅仅拥有低技能，并且毫无准备地进入劳动力市场。要是他们继续学习的话，这就意味着他们将比同龄人付出更多的努力和需要更多（昂贵）的支持。事实上，在经合组织国家中25-34岁的孩子没有达到高中教育的比例达到将近20%。尽管差异性非常大，韩国这一比例为3％，然而在土耳其这一比例高达62％（经合组织，2011）。学生背景在许多国家对他们的学业成就有很显著的影响，通常情况下，低社会经济背景和低效能会集合在特定人群中。弱势学生在测试中低于等级二的数量的增加将被解读为是教育系统公平性的一个指标（经合组织，2012）。例如，在韩国，没有达到基本的技能的少数学生往往被认定为弱势学生。在这个国家，来自于低社会经济地位的学生表现出低效能的可能性比来自高地位的学生高3.5倍。降低学业失败的可能性对个人或者社会以及社会经济的发展都很有帮助。学业失败和辍学的经济社会成本很高，然而早一些投资并且持续到高中完成的做法更有效率。一个至少获得高中教育的人拥有更好的就业和健康的生活，导致他通过缴纳高税收向公共社会给与更多贡献。更多受过教育的人致力于可持续发展的经济，同时较少的依赖公共援助和较少受到经济衰退的影响，反过来更好的促进社会公平发展（经合组织，2011年）。教育是经合组织国家发展战略的核心要素。为了长期运行有效，能够从教育中收获益处必须让学生尽可能接触优质的教育，并且尽可能能够呆到高中教育结束，以确保获得足够的技能和知识，这些技能和知识会对他们在职场上找到自己的为止有所帮助。有两个非常重要的战略可以实施：·通过设计一个有利于教育公平的教育系统：更具体的说是，早期的追踪、重复、确认学生没有选择一个低质量的教育计划，这往往会放大社会和经济的劣势，从而导致学业的失败。第二部分评估系统实施情况，并提供五项建议避免学业失败，促进高中教育的竞争。这可以帮助强化整个系统公平，所有这些行为对贫困学生都是非常有利的，同时又不会妨碍其他学生的学习进度。·通过关注和支持弱势学校：学校拥有弱势学生的比例越高，面临问题的风险的比例也越高，这可能影响作为一个整体的教育系统。低效的弱势学校常常缺乏有能力的人才的支持。按照经验，作为学校的领导和老师，教师和社区环境，没法提供优质的学习必须条件是导致弱势学校的关键因素。第三章节提出了五项政策建议以达到有效支持弱势学校的发展。虽然这适用于所有学校，但是他们对低效的弱势学校尤其有效，因为这样做，他们更有可能实现自身的进步。在任何国家，应对这些挑战都是一项艰巨的任务。强大而持续的政府支持以及领导持续的关注只能对教育系统发展的影响起到短暂的效果。这还需要政策在设计和实施过程中考虑到自身结构的问题，从这方面讲，设置一个高的目标以及设立高标准对提升整体教育公平有更显著的作用。（第四章节）追踪制度层面的政策如何阻碍教育公平教育系统以及实现教育公平的途径需要被设计出来，既强化公平也能使学生成功。然而，一些制度层面的政策，例如六级和提前跟踪，都能放大社会经济差距，促使辍学行为的发生，而其他政策却能缓解他们（Causa和Chapuis，2009年）。本节提出并发展处五个具体的制度层面的政策杠杆，用以减少教育不平等并有助于提高整体的性能。2.1消除留级难题：留级是经合组织国家的普遍做法留级主要发生在，当一个学生经过正式或者非正式的评估，必须在同一水平再进行一年的额外学习，而不是和他的同龄人一样晋升到人生的下一个学习阶段。留级普遍发生在许多经合组织国家：13%的15岁学生被报道需要