evidence-based teaching - creative teaching frame：教学创新的教学框架的证据

SessionOutcomesIdentifythebasisandrationaleforusingevidence-basedpracticeinthedesignoflearningexperiences(e.g.,teaching)AnalysetheimportanceofEffectSizeinchoosingandusingteachingmethodsDerivecoreprinciplesoflearningfromananalysisofEffectSizesAnalyseInstructionalstrategiesintermsof“RussianDolls”Designhighlyeffective(andefficient)learningexperiencesacrossdifferentplatforms(e.g.,face-to-face,online,blended)usingEvidence-basedpracticeTeachCreativelyTeachingQuality

isthe

BigFactorinStudentLearning“Theeffectoftheteacherfarovershadowsclassroomvariables,suchaspreviousachievementlevelofstudents,classsize…heterogeneityofstudents,andtheethnicandsocio-economicmakeupoftheclassroom.”

(Rivers&Sanders,2002,p.17)“Onthebasisofourfindingstodateitcouldbearguedthateffectiveschoolsareonlyeffectivetotheextentthattheyhaveeffectiveteachers”

(Rowe&Rowe,1993,p.15)“Goodteacherstouchpeople’slivesforever.Ifyouteachwell,someofyourstudentswillonlysucceedbecauseofyourexcellentteaching”(GeoffPettyinIntroductiontoEvidence-basedTeaching)

EducationhasbeenaCreatureofFashionForthoseofuswhohavebeenaroundeducationforafewdecadesorso–youmayrememberTraditional(3RRR’s)-ProgressiveEducation-BacktoBasics(Traditional)Morerecently:Student-centred:inquiry-basedlearning,challenge-basedlearning,studiothinking

–what’snext?Theteacherisnomorethe“SageontheStage”,butthe“GuideontheSide”IsthereanEducationalJurassicPark?MovingoutofEducationalJurassicPark“Contrarytocommonbelief,peopledon’thavedifferentlearningstyles.Theydo,however,havedifferentpersonalities.Thedistinctionisimportant,becauseweneedtobeclearthateverybodylearnsinthesameway”

(Schank.R.,1999,p.48)“Whileourlivesandourproblemsareverydifferent,ourbrainsworkinsimilarways”

(Goulston,2009,p.3)“Whatanypersonintheworldcanlearn,almostallpersonscanlearnifprovidedwithappropriatepriorandcurrentconditionsoflearning”

(BenjaminBloom)Evidence-basedpractice

-whatdoesthismeantoyou?Evidence-basedPractice“Itishardtoconceiveofalessscientificenterpriseamonghumanendeavours.Virtuallyanythingthatcouldbethoughtupfortreatmentwastriedoutatonetimeoranother,and,oncetried,lasteddecadesorevencenturiesbeforebeinggivenup.Itwas,inretrospect,themostfrivolousandirresponsiblekindofexperimentation,basedonnothingbuttrialanderror,andusuallyresultinginpreciselythatsequence”(p.159)Themedicalprofessionbeforethedriveforevidence-basedpractice(Thomas,1979,p.159)“Thekeyquestioniswhetherteachingcanshiftfromanimmaturetoamatureprofession,fromopinionstoevidence,fromsubjectivejudgementsandpersonalcontacttocritiqueofjudgements“(Hattie,2009,p.259)IsEvidence-basedpracticepossibleforTeaching?“…overthepast3decades,wehaveamassedenoughresearchandtheoryaboutlearningtoderiveatrulyresearchbased-modelofInstruction”(Marzano,1992,p.2)“Therearesystematicandprincipledaspectsofeffectiveteaching,andthereisabaseofverifiableevidenceofknowledgethatsupportsthatworkinthesensethatitislikeengineeringormedicine”(Darling-Hammond&Bransford,2006,p.12)“Wehavearicheducationalresearchbase,butrarelyisitusedbyteachers,andrarelydoesitleadtopolicychangesthataffectthenatureofteaching”(Hattie,2009,p.2)TheChallengeforEvidence-basedteaching:

MovingTeachingfromMystery

toHeuristics

“Heuristicsrepresentanincompleteyetdistinctlyadvancedunderstandingofwhatwaspreviouslyamystery.Butthatunderstandingisunequallydistributed.Somepeopleremainstuckintheworldofmystery,whileothersmasteritsheuristics.Thebeautyofheuristicsisthattheyguideustowardasolutionbywayoforganizedexplorationofpossibilities.”(Martin,R,2009,TheDesignofBusiness,p.12)Anothersneakyquestionforyou–Whereareyounow?SomePioneersintheFieldBransford,J.etal.,(1999),Brain,Mind,Experience&School.NationalAcademyPress:Washington,DC.Marzano,R.(2007),TheArtandScienceofTeaching:AComprehensiveFrameworkforEffectiveInstruction.ASCD.Mayer,R.E.&Alexander,P.A.,(2010),HandbookofResearchonLearningandInstruction.Routledge:London.Petty,G.,(2009),Evidence-BasedTeaching:APracticalApproach.NelsonThornes:Cheltenham.Hattie,J.,(2009),VisibleLearning.Routledge:NewYork.Hattie,J.,(2012),VisibleLearningForTeachers:MaximizingImpactOnLearning.Routledge:London.Hattie,J.&Yates,G.C.R.,(2014),VisiblelearningandtheScienceofHowweLearn.Routledge:NewYork.ARevolutioninTeaching“Teachingisabouttoembarkonarevolution,andlikemedicine,abandonbothcustomandpractice,andfashionsandfads,tobecomeevidence-based”Halfamillionexperimentsinrealclassroomshaveuncoveredtheteachingmethodsthatworkbest.Thesecanimprovestudents’attainmentbytwogradescomparedtoconventionalpractice.Thefiftyormoremethods–someold,somenew:caneachraisepassratesby20%to30%arecreative,challenging,andgreatlyenjoyedbystudentsrequirethelearnertodomoreinclass….andtheteacherless!equipstudentsforprogression,by“teachingintelligence”.

(GeoffPetty,Evidence-basedTeaching)BigMethodeffectsonStudentAttainmentfromHattie’smeta-analysis(1)

No.InfluenceMeaneffectsize2FeedbackStudentsgettingfeedbackontheirworkfromtheteacherorfromthemselves(self-assessmentorfrompeersorsomeothersources.Note:somefeedbackhasmoreeffectthanothers.Forexample,peerassessmentis0.63andself-assessmentis0.540.813Whole-classinteractiveteaching(directinstruction)Aspecificapproachtoactivelearninginclass,whichishighlyteacherled,butveryactiveforstudents.Thisinvolvessummariesreviewsandarangeofactivelearningmethods,includingquestioning0.814StrategytrainingExplicitteachingofsubject-specificandgeneralstudyandthinkingskills,integratedintothecurriculum0.8011CooperativelearningSpecificteachingmethodssuchasjigsawthatgivestudentsresponsibilityforlearningandteachingeachother0.5912ChallenginggoalsforstudentsGivingstudentsasummaryinadvanceandapurposeforthelearning0.59BigMethodeffectsonStudentAttainmentfromHattie’smeta-analysis(2)

No.InfluenceMeaneffectsize14MasterylearningStudentsmustwork(testedandre-tested)untiltheyachievethepassmark0.5516CreativityProgrammesTeachingcreativethinking0.5220StudySkillsTeachingstudentsusefulstudyskillswithoutintegratingitintothecurriculum0.4927AdvanceOrganizersGivingstudentsasummaryinadvanceandapurposeforthelearning0.4628ConceptMapping0.4567Problem-basedlearningGivingstudentsaproblemtosolvethatrequiresthemtoteachthemselves0.06WhatdoesanEffectSizelooklike

intermsofstudentattainment?Asabaselineaneffectsizeof1.0standarddeviationismassiveandistypicallyassociatedwith:Advancingthelearner’sachievementbyoneyearImprovingtherateoflearningby50%AtwogradeleapinGCSEgradesEffectsizeisa

waytomeasuringtheeffectivenessofaparticularinterventiontoascertainameasureofboththeimprovement(gain)inlearnerachievementforagroupoflearnersANDthevariationofstudentperformancesexpressedonastandardisedscale.BytakingintoaccountbothimprovementandvariationitprovidesinformationaboutwhichinterventionsareworthhavingNOTE:Forstudentsmovingfromoneyeartothenext,theaverageeffectsize acrossallstudentsis0.40.Hence,effectsizesabove4.0areofparticular interest.SomeimportantconsiderationsaboutEffectSizesAsHattienotes:

“…someeffectsizesare‘Russiandolls’containingmorethanone strategy.Forexample,‘Feedback’requiresthatthestudenthasbeen givenagoal,andcompletedanactivityforwhichthefeedbackisto begiven;‘whole-classinteractiveteaching’isastrategythatincludes ‘advanceorganisers’andfeedbackandreviews”

(p.62)Itisalsoimportanttobalanceeffectsizewithlevelofdifficultyofinterventions.Forexample,providing‘advanceorganizers’,whicharesummariesinadvanceoftheteaching,hasaneffectsizeof0.46,whichisprettyaverage.However,theyonlytake3minutesatthebeginningofthelesson,andpotentiallyofferalmostagradeimprovementintermsofstudent’sachievement.Furthermore,theeffectsizedependsonhoweffectivelyyouimplementthestrategy,asyouwouldexpectHattieandBeyond:EssentialQuestionsHowdoeffectivemethodsproducepositiveimpactsonthelearningprocess?Whatarethekeyfactorsandcoreprinciplesoflearningthatimpactlearnerattainment(ModelofLearning)?Howmightteachingprofessionalsusethisknowledgethoughtfullyintheirpractice(e.g.,designingeffectiveinstructionalstrategies)toenhancestudentlearningandattainment?Whataretheimplicationsfortheprofessionaldevelopmentofteachers?Activity:SelectoneofHattie’shigheffectsizemethodsandexplainhowitworksintermsofhowhumanslearns

NoviceDependentUncertainErraticandpoorperformance

ExpertIndependentConfidentHighperformanceASimplifiedModelofLearningMUDD

MemoryUnderstandingDoingDesireCompetenceEffectiveTeaching–andLearning-requiresGoodAttention

“It’sbiologicallyimpossibletolearnanythingthatyou’renotpayingattentionto;theattentionalmechanismdrivesthewholelearningandmemoryprocess”

(Sylwester,1998,p.6)

“Theshapeandcontentoflifedependsonhowattentionhasbeenused….Attentionisthemostimportanttoolinthetaskofimprovingthequalityofexperience”(Csikszentmihalyi,1990,p.33)AskMichellePfeiffer

Interestandperceivedvalueinitiateanddrivethelearningprocess“Therecanbenomentaldevelopmentwithoutinterest.Interestisthesinequanonforattentionandapprehension.Youmayendeavourtoexciteinterestbymeansofbirchrods,oryoumaycoaxitbytheincitementofpleasurableactivity.Butwithoutinteresttherewillbenoprogress”(Whitehead,1967,p.37)Importanceofchallenge“Succeedingatsomethingthatyouthoughtwasdifficultisthesurestwayinwhichtoenhanceself-efficacyandself-conceptasalearner”

(Hattie,2012,p.58)“Educatingstudentstohavehigh,challenging,appropriateexpectationsisamongthemostpowerfulinfluenceinenhancingstudentachievement”(Hattie,2012,

p.60)“Ifyouthinkyoucanorthinkyoucan’t,you’reright”

(HenryFord)“Weforgetthatbeliefsarenomorethanperceptions,usuallywithalimitedsellbydate,yetweactasthoughtheywereconcreterealities”

(Adler,1996,p.145)Beliefscanpositively(ornegatively)influencethelearningprocessIbelief,througheffort,atopgradeispossibleI’mnotsmartanditsallblur,lah,andI’llfailAttributionTheory:Mindsets

CarolDweck)FixedMindset(Intelligenceisstatic)Leadstoadesiretolooksmartandthereforeatendencyto:AvoidchallengesGetdefensiveandgiveupwhenfacedwithobstaclesSeeeffortassomethinglessablepeopleneed,andnotforthesmartIgnoreusefulnegativefeedbackFeelthreatenedbythesuccessofothersGrowthMindset(Intelligencecanbedeveloped)Leadstoadesiretolearnandthereforeatendencyto:EmbracechallengesPersistinthefaceofsetbacksSeeeffortasthepathtomasteryLearnfromcriticismFindLessonsandinspirationinthesuccessofothersAsaresult,theymayplateauearlyandachievelessthantheirfullpotentialAsaresult,theyreachever-higherlevelsofachievement“Therearedifferencesinattainmentgainsrelatingtowhetherteachersbelievethatachievementisdifficulttochangebecauseitisfixedandinnate,comparedtoteacherswhobelievethatattainmentischangeable(thelatterleadingtohighergains)”(Hattie,2012,p.92)ImpactofMotivation&BeliefsonlearningMarzano(1988)categorizedteachingstrategiesandother‘interventions’dependingonwhethertheyactivatedinthestudent:Theself-system–Asetofbeliefsthestudentholdsabouthisorhercapabilities,themeaningandvalueofwhattheyhavebeenaskedtodo,alongwiththelikelihoodofsuccessThemeta-cognitivesystem–Studentssettingthemselvesgoals,monitoringtheirprogresstowardsthesegoalsandadaptingtdifficultiesThecognitivesystem–Thisisthesystemthatreasons,andthinksinotherwayswiththeinformationatitsdisposal,toachievethedesiredgoals.Hefoundthatactivatingtheself-systemhadgreatesteffect,themetacognitivesystemthenextmosteffect,andthecognitivesystemleast,thoughitisstillsubstantial.Interestingly,heargueditistheself-systemthatactivatesthemeta-cognitivesystem,whichactivesthecognitivesystem,whichcreateslearning.(Marzano–ATheory-BasedMeta-AnalysisofResearchonInstruction)ImplicationsofMarzano’sresearchHighlightstheimportanceoftheteachersroleinmotivatingstudentsbyencouragingthemtoseethevalueofwhattheyareabouttolearn,andtobelieveintheirowncapacitytolearnit.“..ifsomethingcanbelearned,itcanbelearnedinamotivatingmanner”

(p.23)“..everyinstructionalplanalsoneedstobeamotivationalplan”(p.24)(Wlodkowski,R.J.,1999,EnhancingAdultMotivationtoLearn)CorePrinciple1:

MotivationalstrategiesareincorporatedintothedesignoflearningexperiencesEffectsize:0.48.However,thisisaRussianDoll(Meta-principle)asitrunsacrossarangeofmethodusesInstructionalstrategiesmustfacilitate:Meetingfundamentaluniversalneeds(e.g.,Mastery,Autonomy,Relatedness,Purpose)Makinglearninginterestingfortheparticularlearnergroup(e.g.,meaningful,sufficientlychallenging,differentiated)Reframinglimitingbeliefs(e.g.,promoteaGrowthMindset)wherenecessary"Peopleoftensaythatmotivationdoesn'tlast.Well,neitherdoesbathing-that'swhywerecommenditdaily“(ZigZagler)EffectiveLearningneedsStructurestudentsmustbeawareofthepurpose,keypointsandprinciplesinwhattheyarelearning“Itisindisputablethat,fromthestudents’perspective,clearstandardsandgoalsareavitallyimportantelementofaneffectiveeducationalexperience.Lackofclarityonthesepointsisalmostalwaysassociatedwithnegativeevaluations,learningdifficultiesandpoorperformance”(Ramsden(1992,p.127)“Teachersaresuccessfultothedegreethattheycanmovestudentsfromsingletomultipleideasthenrelateandextendtheseideassuchthatlearnersconstructandreconstructknowledgeandideas.Itisnottheknowledgeorideas,butthelearner’sconstructionoftheknowledgeandideasthatiscritical.Increasesinstudentlearningfollowsareconceptualizationaswellasanacquisitionofinformation”(Hattie,2009,p.37)ImportanceofClearOutcomes

TheChim(Cheem)version‘Wouldyoutellme,please,whichwayIoughttogofromhere,saidAlice?’‘Thatdependsagooddealonwhereyouwanttogetto,saidthecat’‘Idon’tmuchcarewhere…’saidAlice‘Thenitdoesn’tmatterwhichwayyougo,’saidthecat.(AdaptedfromAliceinWonderland,LewisCarroll)“Theabilitytoknowwhatyouwantisthesinglemostimportantskillinmanagingyourlife” (McDermott,1998)CorePrinciple2:Learninggoals,objectivesandproficiencyexpectationsareclearlyvisibletolearners

EffectSizes:ChallengingGoals

0.56(Hattie);SpecifyingGoals,0.97(Marzano)Learningdesignmustincorporate:Clearlycommunicatinggoals,objectivesandperformancestandardsthroughrealworldexamplesEnsuringgoalsarechallengingforthelearnergroup(e.g.,achievablewitheffort)Explicitteachingoflearningintentionsandsuccesscriteriatoensurelearnersunderstandingofwhattheylooklike,soundlikeandfeellikeCorePrinciple3:LearnerspriorknowledgeisactivatedandconnectedtonewlearningEffectsizes:Improvingstudentengagementthroughopportunitiestorespond,0.60;Self-verbalization/self-questioning,0.64;RemediationFeedback,0.65Priorknowledgeisthelensthroughwhichstudentswillperceiveandreacttonewinformationprovidedinalearningevent.“Allnewknowledgegainsitsformandmeaningthroughitsconnectionwithpre-existingknowledgeanditsinfluenceontheorganizationandreorganizationofpriorknowledge”(Shulman1991,p.10)Ausubel(1978)wentasfarasarguingthat:

“IfIhadtoreduceallofeducationalpsychologytojustoneprinciple,Iwouldsaythis:themostimportantsinglefactorinfluencinglearningiswhatthelearneralreadyknows.Ascertainthisandteachhim(sic)accordingly”(p.163)Coreprinciple4:LearningisenhancedthroughmultiplemethodsandpresentationmodesthatengagetherangeofsensesAnotherRussianDollprincipleasitrunsacrossarangeofmethoduses

“…itisdesirabletohavemultiplewaysofteachingand

thereisnoneedtoclassifystudentsintodifferent ‘intelligences”

(Hattie,2012,p.91)“Learningisnotaspectatorsport.Studentsdonotlearnmuchjustbysittinginclasslisteningtoteachers,memorizingpre-packagedassignments,andspittingoutanswers.Theymusttalkaboutwhattheyarelearning,writeaboutit,relateittopastexperiences,applyittotheirdailylives.Theymustmakewhattheylearnpartofthemselves”(Chickering&Gamson,1987,p.3)

AnotherbitofEducationalJurassicPark–finallyputtobed“Oneofthemorefruitlesspursuitsislabellingstudentswith‘learningstyles’.Thismodernfadforlearningstyles,nottobeconfusedwiththemoreworthwhilenotionofmultiplelearningstrategies,assumesthatdifferentstudentshavedifferingpreferencesforparticularwaysoflearning(Pashler,McDaniel,Rohrer,&Bjork,2009;Riener&Willingham,2010).Often,theclaimisthatwhenteachingisalignedwiththepreferredordominantlearningstyle(forexample,auditory,visual,tactile,orkinesthetic)thenachievementisenhanced.Whiletherecanbemanyadvantagesbyteachingcontentusingmanydifferentmethods(visual,spoken,movement),thismustnotbeconfusedwiththinkingthatstudentshavedifferentialstrengthsinthinkinginthesestyles”

(p89)CorePrincipal5:Contentisorganizedaroundkeyconceptsandprinciplesthatarefundamentaltounderstandingthestructureofasubject

Effectsizes:Directinstruction,0.59;Conceptmapping,0.60;Advancedorganizers,0.46Understandinginvolvesmakingpersonalmeaning–seeingrelationsbetweenconstructsandbuildingnewlearningonold;movingfromconcretetoabstract–reliantonbothacquiringknowledgebasesandorganizingthemthroughgoodthinkingKnowledgeisincreasingexponentiallyandwemaybelivinginarapidlychangingvolatileworld–butourbrainsarethesameas10,000yearsago.Managingcognitiveloadisnowbecomingaso-called21istcenturyskill.CorePrinciple6:Goodthinkingpromotesthebuildingofunderstanding

Effectsize:Metacognitivestrategies;0.69;Creativityprogrammes,0.65:Questioning,4.1;Teachinglearningstrategies,0.62;Teachinglearningstrategies,0.63“Thebestthingwecando,fromthepointofviewofthebrainandlearning,istoteachourlearnershowtothink”

(Jenson,1996,p.163)“Thoughtisthekeytoknowledge.Knowledgeisdiscoveredbythinking,analyzedbythinking,organizedbythinking,transformedbythinking,assessedbythinking,and,mostimportantly,acquiredbythinking”(Paul,1993vii)ThinkingisthecognitiveprocessthatbuildsUnderstandingMetacognitiveStrategiesenhancelearningcapabilityMetacognitionreferstotheawarenessof,andabilitytomonitorandcontrol,one’scognitiveandaffectiveprocessinginordertoenhancelearningMetacognitionplaysacentralroleinlearningbyhelpingtoguidethelearner’scognitiveprocessingoftheto-be-learnedmaterialGoodmetacognitivecapabilityisthebasisofbecomingaself-regulatedlearner,whichisamajorgoalofeducationExplicitlyteachingstudentstobemoremetacognitiveintheirproblem-solvingenhancestheirperformanceandsuccessrates(e.g.,Bransford,Hattie)Note:Learningstrategiescaninvolvephysicaltoolssuchasmind-mapping,etc.,butit’stheinternalcognitiveprocessesinsideourheads–covertstrategies–thatreallymakesthedifferenceintermsofqualityoflearning

CorePrinciple7:LearningDesignutilizestheworkingofmemorysystemsSensoryMemorySightHearingTouchSmellTasteWorking

MemoryExecutive

Organizing

FunctionLimitedCapacity

5-9bitsof

informationLong–Term

MemoryENVIRONMENTInfiniteCapacityForgettingIntegrating–Conscious,Subconscious&UnconsciousAnotherRussianDollprinciple:OurMemorySystemsarefundamentaltoalllearning–howthesearemanagedaffectstherateandqualityoflearningWorkingMemoryWhilehumanbrainshavepotentiallyunlimitedstoragecapacitybymeansoflongtermmemory,allnewlearninghastofirstlypassthroughworkingmemory,whichhasalimitedcapacityofaround7±2bitsofinformation.ThisposesproblemsofCognitiveLoadforlearning,butasClark&Lyons(2004)pointout:“…itisinworkingmemorythatactivementalwork,includinglearning,takesplace.Workingmemoryisthesiteofconsciousthoughtandprocessing”(p.48)LongTermMemoryLongtermmemory,onceviewedasaninertdumpingground,iscrucialforlearningandthedevelopmentofexpertise.Forexample,Kircheretal(2006)pointout:“...longtermmemoryisnowviewedasthecentraldominantstructureofhumancognition.Everythingwesee,hearandthinkaboutiscriticallydependentonandinfluencedbyourlong-termmemory”(pp.3-4)

Researchclearlyshowsthatamajorfactorthatdifferentiatesexpertsfromnovicesisthatexpertproblem-solversareabletodrawonthevastknowledgebasesintheirlong-termmemoryandquicklyselectthebestapproachandproceduresforsolvingagivenproblemAsKircheretalallude:“Weareskillfulinanareabecauseourlong-termmemorycontainshugeamountsofinformationconcerningthatarea.Thatinformationpermitsustoquicklyrecognizethecharacteristicsofasituationandindicatestous,oftenunconsciously,whattodoandhowtodoit”

(p.4)

MinimizeForgettingthroughReview:

UtilizingtheworkingofWM<M10nextnextnextminutesdaydayweekwithcontinuousperiodicreviewsRecallwithoutreviewsRecallwithreviewsatintervals100%ProbabilityofrecallSomePedagogicImplicationsoftheworkingofmemorySystemsLessonsshould:bechunkedintosegmentstoavoid/reducecognitiveoverloadIncludeactivitiestocreatecognitiveengagement(GoodThinking)buildinreviewtimeontheContent(e.g.,KeyConcepts,Principles)-toensureeffectivetransferfromWorkingMemorytoLong-termmemory(MemorySystems).SeemslikeaRussianDollTasksinvolvingthinkinghelptobuildbetterconstructs(understandingofconcepts)asstudentsgetmorefamiliarwiththematerialandstarttochunkbitsofittogetherthemselves.However,encouragingtothemtonoticetheconstituentpartsandtheirrelations–MakingThinkingVisible–isusefulMemoryisstrengthenedbyrepetitionratherthantotaltime,hencerecalliscrucialChunkedmaterial,especially,whenwellestablishedinLTM,takeslessspaceinWM,enablingmorespacetoconcentrateonthethinkingprocessratherthanmemorizationGraphicOrganisersandothervisualrepresentations(effectsize1.2to1.3)HowVisualrepresentationswork:Diagramscannotcontainallthedetails–sothelearnerisforcedtoisolatethekeypointsandtheirrelations–whichimposesastructureontheinformation.Thishelpstosee‘thewoodfromthetrees’Recallisalmostalwaysvisuallytriggered;hencevisualrepresentationactsasacuetriggeringthefullmemoryOnlystructuredinformationcangoinLongtermmemory,sothishelpsthetransmissionfromWMtoLTMandsubsequentrecallFacilitatestheWhole–Part–Wholestrategyinhelpingtomakeconnections(e.g.,relatinginformation)RelatedinformationisquitehighupintheSOLOtaxonomy–hencefosteringandbuildingadeepunderstandingofthetopicWPWLearningModelThebasicWPWLearningModelcanbedepictedasfollows:Whole

Part

LearningSegmentsSegment#1Segment#2Segment#3Segment#4Segment#5The‘firstwhole’createsanorganizationalframeworkfornewcontentThesupportingcomponentelements-‘parts’-arethensystematicallydevelopedThe‘secondwhole’linksthesepartstogethertofosterunderstanding

SOLOTaxonomy:someKeyPointsSOLOmodelshowlearningdevelopsandthequalitativeaspectsofthisdevelopment.Whenwelearnanewtopicwestartnearthebottomofthetaxonomy(howeverbrightweare),andasourlearningimprovesweclimbthetaxonomy,addingdetailbutalsorelations.SOLOcanbeusedtospecifyacceptableorunacceptablelevelsofperformanceinsuitabletasksandsubjectareas.Expertsstructuretheirunderstandingaroundprinciplesratherthanaroundtopics“Expertiseisnotjustknowingmore.ExpertsstructureororganisetheirknowledgearoundDeepsubjectprinciples,andunderstandtheconditionswhentheseprinciplesapply.Theirmemoryisindexedsothatrelevantknowledgecanberetrieved.Whensolvingaproblemtheylooktoseewhatconditionsapply,andsoretrievealltheinformationthatisrelevanttothattask.Theydon’tneedtosearchthewholeof