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GeorgeWashington (1st)

OnApril30,1789,GeorgeWashington,standingonthebalconyofFederalHallonWallStreetinNewYork,tookhisoathofofficeasthefirstPresidentoftheUnitedStates."Asthefirstofeverything,inoursituationwillservetoestablishaPrecedent,"hewroteJamesMadison,"itisdevoutlywishedonmypart,thattheseprecedentsmaybefixedontrueprinciples."

Bornin1732intoaVirginiaplanterfamily,helearnedthemorals,manners,andbodyofknowledgerequisiteforan18thcenturyVirginiagentleman.

Hepursuedtwointertwinedinterests:militaryartsandwesternexpansion.At16hehelpedsurveyShenandoahlandsforThomas,LordFairfax.Commissionedalieutenantcolonelin1754,hefoughtthefirstskirmishesofwhatgrewintotheFrenchandIndianWar.Thenextyear,asanaidetoGen.EdwardBraddock,heescapedinjuryalthoughfourbulletsrippedhiscoatandtwohorseswereshotfromunderhim.

From1759totheoutbreakoftheAmericanRevolution,WashingtonmanagedhislandsaroundMountVernonandservedintheVirginiaHouseofBurgesses.Marriedtoawidow,MarthaDandridgeCustis,hedevotedhimselftoabusyandhappylife.Butlikehisfellowplanters,WashingtonfelthimselfexploitedbyBritishmerchantsandhamperedbyBritishregulations.Asthequarrelwiththemothercountrygrewacute,hemoderatelybutfirmlyvoicedhisresistancetotherestrictions.

WhentheSecondContinentalCongressassembledinPhiladelphiainMay1775,Washington,oneoftheVirginiadelegates,waselectedCommanderinChiefoftheContinentalArmy.OnJuly3,1775,atCambridge,Massachusetts,hetookcommandofhisill-trainedtroopsandembarkeduponawarthatwastolastsixgruelingyears.

HerealizedearlythatthebeststrategywastoharasstheBritish.HereportedtoCongress,"weshouldonallOccasionsavoidageneralAction,orputanythingtotheRisque,unlesscompelledbyanecessity,intowhichweoughtnevertobedrawn."Ensuing

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FirstPresident

1789-1797

Born:February22,1732inWestmorelandCounty,Virginia

Died:December14,1799inMountVernon,Virginia

MarriedtoMarthaDandridgeWashington

battlessawhimfallbackslowly,thenstrikeunexpectedly.Finallyin1781withtheaidofFrenchallies--heforcedthesurrenderofCornwallisatYorktown.

WashingtonlongedtoretiretohisfieldsatMountVernon.ButhesoonrealizedthattheNationunderitsArticlesofConfederationwasnotfunctioningwell,sohebecameaprimemoverinthestepsleadingtotheConstitutionalConventionatPhiladelphiain1787.WhenthenewConstitutionwasratified,theElectoralCollegeunanimouslyelectedWashingtonPresident

HedidnotinfringeuponthepolicymakingpowersthathefelttheConstitutiongaveCongress.ButthedeterminationofforeignpolicybecamepreponderantlyaPresidentialconcern.WhentheFrenchRevolutionledtoamajorwarbetweenFranceandEngland,WashingtonrefusedtoacceptentirelytherecommendationsofeitherhisSecretaryofStateThomasJefferson,whowaspro-French,orhisSecretaryoftheTreasuryAlexanderHamilton,whowaspro-British.Rather,heinsisteduponaneutralcourseuntiltheUnitedStatescouldgrowstronger.

Tohisdisappointment,twopartiesweredevelopingbytheendofhisfirstterm.Weariedofpolitics,feelingold,heretiredattheendofhissecond.InhisFarewellAddress,heurgedhiscountrymentoforswearexcessivepartyspiritandgeographicaldistinctions.Inforeignaffairs,hewarnedagainstlong-termalliances.

WashingtonenjoyedlessthanthreeyearsofretirementatMountVernon,forhediedofathroatinfectionDecember14,1799.FormonthstheNationmournedhim.

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JohnAdams(2nd)

Learnedandthoughtful,John

Adamswasmoreremarkableasa

politicalphilosopherthanasa

politician."Peopleandnationsare

forgedinthefiresofadversity,"he

said,doubtlessthinkingofhisown

aswellastheAmericanexperience.

Adamswasborninthe

MassachusettsBayColonyin1735.

AHarvard-educatedlawyer,heearlybecameidentifiedwiththepatriotcause;adelegatetotheFirstandSecondContinentalCongresses,heledinthemovementforindependence.

DuringtheRevolutionaryWarheservedinFranceandHollandindiplomaticroles,andhelpednegotiatethetreatyofpeace.From1785to1788hewasministertotheCourtofSt.James's,returningtobeelectedVicePresidentunderGeorgeWashington.

Adams'twotermsasVicePresidentwerefrustratingexperiencesforamanofhisvigor,intellect,andvanity.HecomplainedtohiswifeAbigail,"Mycountryhasinitswisdomcontrivedformethemostinsignificantofficethatevertheinventionofmancontrivedorhisimaginationconceived."

WhenAdamsbecamePresident,thewarbetweentheFrenchandBritishwascausinggreatdifficultiesfortheUnitedStatesonthehighseasandintensepartisanshipamongcontendingfactionswithintheNation.

HisadministrationfocusedonFrance,wheretheDirectory,therulinggroup,hadrefusedtoreceivetheAmericanenvoyandhadsuspendedcommercialrelations.

AdamssentthreecommissionerstoFrance,butinthespringof1798wordarrivedthattheFrenchForeignMinisterTalleyrandandtheDirectoryhadrefusedtonegotiatewiththemunlesstheywouldfirstpayasubstantialbribe.AdamsreportedtheinsulttoCongress,andtheSenateprintedthecorrespondence,inwhichtheFrenchmenwerereferredtoonlyas"X,Y,andZ."

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SecondPresident

1797-1801

Born:October301735inBraintree,Norfolk,Massachusetts

Died:July4,1826inBraintree,Norfolk,

Massachusetts

MarriedtoAbigailSmithAdams

TheNationbrokeoutintowhatJeffersoncalled"theX.Y.Z.

fever,"increasedinintensitybyAdams'sexhortations.ThepopulacecheereditselfhoarsewhereverthePresidentappeared.NeverhadtheFederalistsbeensopopular.

Congressappropriatedmoneytocompletethreenewfrigatesandtobuildadditionalships,andauthorizedtheraisingofaprovisionalarmy.ItalsopassedtheAlienandSeditionActs,intendedtofrightenforeignagentsoutofthecountryandtostifletheattacksofRepublicaneditors.

PresidentAdamsdidnotcallforadeclarationofwar,buthostilitiesbeganatsea.Atfirst,AmericanshippingwasalmostdefenselessagainstFrenchprivateers,butby1800armedmerchantmenandU.S.warshipswereclearingthesea-lanes.

Despiteseveralbrilliantnavalvictories,warfeversubsided.WordcametoAdamsthatFrancealsohadnostomachforwarandwouldreceiveanenvoywithrespect.Longnegotiationsendedthequasiwar.

SendingapeacemissiontoFrancebroughtthefullfuryoftheHamiltoniansagainstAdams.Inthecampaignof1800theRepublicanswereunitedandeffective,theFederalistsbadlydivided.Nevertheless,AdamspolledonlyafewlesselectoralvotesthanJefferson,whobecamePresident.

OnNovember1,1800,justbeforetheelection,AdamsarrivedinthenewCapitalCitytotakeuphisresidenceintheWhiteHouse.Onhissecondeveninginitsdamp,unfinishedrooms,hewrotehiswife,"BeforeIendmyletter,IprayHeaventobestowthebestofBlessingsonthisHouseandallthatshallhereafterinhabitit.MaynonebuthonestandwiseMeneverruleunderthisroof."

AdamsretiredtohisfarminQuincy.HerehepennedhiselaborateletterstoThomasJefferson.HereonJuly4,1826,hewhisperedhislastwords:"ThomasJeffersonsurvives."ButJeffersonhaddiedatMonticelloafewhoursearlier.

ThomasJefferson(3rd)

Inthethickofpartyconflictin1800,ThomasJeffersonwroteinaprivateletter,"IhaveswornuponthealtarofGodeternalhostility

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againsteveryformoftyrannyoverthemindofman."

Thispowerfuladvocateoflibertywasbornin1743inAlbemarleCounty,Virginia,inheritingfromhisfather,aplanterandsurveyor,some5,000acresofland,andfromhismother,aRandolph,highsocialstanding.HestudiedattheCollegeofWilliamandMary,thenreadlaw.In1772hemarriedMarthaWaylesSkelton,awidow,andtookhertoliveinhispartlyconstructedmountaintophome,Monticello.

Freckledandsandy-haired,rathertallandawkward,Jeffersonwaseloquentasacorrespondent,buthewasnopublicspeaker.IntheVirginiaHouseofBurgessesandtheContinentalCongress,hecontributedhispenratherthanhisvoicetothepatriotcause.Asthe"silentmember"oftheCongress,Jefferson,at33,draftedtheDeclarationofIndependence.InyearsfollowinghelaboredtomakeitswordsarealityinVirginia.Mostnotably,hewroteabillestablishingreligiousfreedom,enactedin1786.

JeffersonsucceededBenjaminFranklinasministertoFrancein1785.HissympathyfortheFrenchRevolutionledhimintoconflictwithAlexanderHamiltonwhenJeffersonwasSecretaryofStateinPresidentWashington'sCabinet.Heresignedin1793.

Sharppoliticalconflictdeveloped,andtwoseparateparties,theFederalistsandtheDemocratic-Republicans,begantoform.JeffersongraduallyassumedleadershipoftheRepublicans,whosympathizedwiththerevolutionarycauseinFrance.AttackingFederalistpolicies,heopposedastrongcentralizedGovernmentandchampionedtherightsofstates.

AsareluctantcandidateforPresidentin1796,Jeffersoncamewithinthreevotesofelection.ThroughaflawintheConstitution,hebecameVicePresident,althoughanopponentofPresidentAdams.In1800thedefectcausedamoreseriousproblem.Republicanelectors,attemptingtonamebothaPresidentandaVicePresidentfromtheirownparty,castatievotebetweenJeffersonandAaronBurr.TheHouseofRepresentativessettledthetie.Hamilton,dislikingbothJeffersonandBurr,neverthelessurgedJefferson'selection.

WhenJeffersonassumedthePresidency,thecrisisinFrancehadpassed.HeslashedArmyandNavyexpenditures,cutthebudget,eliminatedthetaxonwhiskeysounpopularintheWest,yet

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ThirdPresident

1801-1809

Born:April13,1743inAlbemarleCounty,Virginia

Died:July4,1826in

MonticelloinVirginia

MarriedtoMarthaWaylesSkeltonJefferson

reducedthenationaldebtbyathird.HealsosentanavalsquadrontofighttheBarbarypirates,whowereharassingAmericancommerceintheMediterranean.Further,althoughtheConstitutionmadenoprovisionfortheacquisitionofnewland,JeffersonsuppressedhisqualmsoverconstitutionalitywhenhehadtheopportunitytoacquiretheLouisianaTerritoryfromNapoleonin1803.

DuringJefferson'ssecondterm,hewasincreasinglypreoccupiedwithkeepingtheNationfrominvolvementintheNapoleonicwars,thoughbothEnglandandFranceinterferedwiththeneutralrightsofAmericanmerchantmen.Jefferson'sattemptedsolution,anembargouponAmericanshipping,workedbadlyandwasunpopular.

JeffersonretiredtoMonticellotopondersuchprojectsashisgranddesignsfortheUniversityofVirginia.AFrenchnoblemanobservedthathehadplacedhishouseandhismind"onanelevatedsituation,fromwhichhemightcontemplatetheuniverse."

HediedonJuly4,1826.

JamesMonroe(5th)

OnNewYear'sDay,1825,atthelastofhisannualWhiteHousereceptions,PresidentJamesMonroemadeapleasingimpressionuponaVirginialadywhoshookhishand:

"Heistallandwellformed.Hisdressplainandintheoldstyle....

Hismannerwasquietanddignified.Fromthefrank,honestexpressionofhiseye...IthinkhewelldeservestheencomiumpasseduponhimbythegreatJefferson,whosaid,'Monroewassohonestthatifyouturnedhissoulinsideouttherewouldnotbeaspotonit.'"

BorninWestmorelandCounty,Virginia,in1758,MonroeattendedtheCollegeofWilliamandMary,foughtwithdistinctionintheContinentalArmy,andpracticedlawinFredericksburg,Virginia.

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FifthPresident

1817-1825

Born:April28th,1758inWestmorelandCounty,Virginia

Died:July4,1831inNewYork,NewYork

Asayouthfulpolitician,hejoinedtheanti-Federalistsinthe MarriedtoElizabeth

VirginiaConventionwhichratifiedtheConstitution,andin1790,anadvocateofJeffersonianpolicies,waselectedUnitedStatesSenator.AsMinistertoFrancein1794-1796,hedisplayedstrongsympathiesfortheFrenchcause;later,withRobertR.Livingston,hehelpednegotiatetheLouisianaPurchase.

Hisambitionandenergy,togetherwiththebackingofPresidentMadison,madehimtheRepublicanchoiceforthePresidencyin1816.WithlittleFederalistopposition,heeasilywonre-electionin1820.

MonroemadeunusuallystrongCabinetchoices,namingaSoutherner,JohnC.Calhoun,asSecretaryofWar,andanortherner,JohnQuincyAdams,asSecretaryofState.OnlyHenryClay'srefusalkeptMonroefromaddinganoutstandingWesterner.

Earlyinhisadministration,Monroeundertookagoodwilltour.AtBoston,hisvisitwashailedasthebeginningofan"EraofGoodFeelings."Unfortunatelythese"goodfeelings"didnotendure,althoughMonroe,hispopularityundiminished,followednationalistpolicies.

Acrossthefacadeofnationalism,uglysectionalcracksappeared.ApainfuleconomicdepressionundoubtedlyincreasedthedismayofthepeopleoftheMissouriTerritoryin1819whentheirapplicationforadmissiontotheUnionasaslavestatefailed.AnamendedbillforgraduallyeliminatingslaveryinMissouriprecipitatedtwoyearsofbitterdebateinCongress.

TheMissouriCompromisebillresolvedthestruggle,pairingMissouriasaslavestatewithMaine,afreestate,andbarringslaverynorthandwestofMissouriforever.

InforeignaffairsMonroeproclaimedthefundamentalpolicythatbearshisname,respondingtothethreatthatthemoreconservativegovernmentsinEuropemighttrytoaidSpaininwinningbackherformerLatinAmericancolonies.Monroedidnotbeginformallytorecognizetheyoungsisterrepublicsuntil1822,afterascertainingthatCongresswouldvoteappropriationsfordiplomaticmissions.HeandSecretaryofStateJohnQuincyAdamswishedtoavoidtroublewithSpainuntilithadcededtheFloridas,aswasdonein1821.

KortrightMonroe

GreatBritain,withitspowerfulnavy,alsoopposedreconquestofLatinAmericaandsuggestedthattheUnitedStatesjoininproclaiming"handsoff."Ex-PresidentsJeffersonandMadisoncounseledMonroetoaccepttheoffer,butSecretaryAdamsadvised,"Itwouldbemorecandid...toavowourprinciplesexplicitlytoRussiaandFrance,thantocomeinasacock-boatinthewakeoftheBritishman-of-war."

MonroeacceptedAdams'sadvice.NotonlymustLatinAmericabeleftalone,hewarned,butalsoRussiamustnotencroachsouthwardonthePacificcoast."...theAmericancontinents,"hestated,"bythefreeandindependentconditionwhichtheyhaveassumedandmaintain,arehenceforthnottobeconsideredassubjectsforfuturecolonizationbyanyEuropeanPower."Some20yearsafterMonroediedin1831,thisbecameknownastheMonroeDoctrine.

AbrahamLincoln(16th)

LincolnwarnedtheSouthinhisInauguralAddress:"Inyourhands,mydissatisfiedfellowcountrymen,andnotinmine,isthemomentousissueofcivilwar.Thegovernmentwillnotassailyou....YouhavenooathregisteredinHeaventodestroythe

government,whileIshallhavethemostsolemnonetopreserve,protectanddefendit."

Lincolnthoughtsecessionillegal,andwaswillingtouseforcetodefendFederallawandtheUnion.WhenConfederatebatteriesfiredonFortSumterandforceditssurrender,hecalledonthestatesfor75,000volunteers.FourmoreslavestatesjoinedtheConfederacybutfourremainedwithintheUnion.TheCivilWarhadbegun.

ThesonofaKentuckyfrontiersman,Lincolnhadtostruggleforalivingandforlearning.Fivemonthsbeforereceivinghisparty'snominationforPresident,hesketchedhislife:

"IwasbornFeb.12,1809,inHardinCounty,Kentucky.My

parentswerebothborninVirginia,ofundistinguished

families--secondfamilies,perhapsIshouldsay.Mymother,who

diedinmytenthyear,wasofafamilyofthenameofHanks....

Myfather...removedfromKentuckyto...Indiana,inmyeighth

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SixteenthPresident1861-1865

Born:February12,1809,in

Hodgenville,Hardin

County,Kentucky

Died:April15,1865.LincolndiedthemorningafterbeingshotatFord'sTheatreinWashington,D.C.byJohnWilkesBooth,anactor.

MarriedtoMaryToddLincoln

year....Itwasawildregion,withmanybearsandotherwild

animalsstillinthewoods.ThereIgrewup....OfcoursewhenI

cameofageIdidnotknowmuch.Stillsomehow,Icouldread,write,andcipher...butthatwasall."

Lincolnmadeextraordinaryeffortstoattainknowledgewhileworkingonafarm,splittingrailsforfences,andkeepingstoreatNewSalem,Illinois.HewasacaptainintheBlackHawkWar,spenteightyearsintheIllinoislegislature,androdethecircuitofcourtsformanyyears.Hislawpartnersaidofhim,"Hisambitionwasalittleenginethatknewnorest."

HemarriedMaryTodd,andtheyhadfourboys,onlyoneofwhomlivedtomaturity.In1858LincolnranagainstStephenA.DouglasforSenator.Helosttheelection,butindebatingwithDouglashegainedanationalreputationthatwonhimtheRepublicannominationforPresidentin1860.

AsPresident,hebuilttheRepublicanPartyintoastrongnationalorganization.Further,heralliedmostofthenorthernDemocratstotheUnioncause.OnJanuary1,1863,heissuedtheEmancipationProclamationthatdeclaredforeverfreethoseslaveswithintheConfederacy.

LincolnneverlettheworldforgetthattheCivilWarinvolvedanevenlargerissue.ThishestatedmostmovinglyindedicatingthemilitarycemeteryatGettysburg:"thatweherehighlyresolvethatthesedeadshallnothavediedinvain--thatthisnation,underGod,shallhaveanewbirthoffreedom--andthatgovernmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthepeople,shallnotperishfromtheearth."

Lincolnwonre-electionin1864,asUnionmilitarytriumphsheraldedanendtothewar.Inhisplanningforpeace,thePresidentwasflexibleandgenerous,encouragingSouthernerstolaydowntheirarmsandjoinspeedilyinreunion.

ThespiritthatguidedhimwasclearlythatofhisSecondInauguralAddress,nowinscribedononewalloftheLincolnMemorialinWashington,D.C.:"Withmalicetowardnone;withcharityforall;withfirmnessintheright,asGodgivesustoseetheright,letusstriveontofinishtheworkwearein;tobindupthenation'swounds...."

OnGoodFriday,April14,1865,Lincolnwasassassinatedat

Ford'sTheatreinWashingtonbyJohnWilkesBooth,anactor,whosomehowthoughthewashelpingtheSouth.Theoppositewastheresult,forwithLincoln'sdeath,thepossibilityofpeacewithmagnanimitydied.

TheodoreRoosevelt(26th)

WiththeassassinationofPresidentMcKinley,TheodoreRoosevelt,notquite43,becametheyoungestPresidentintheNation'shistory.HebroughtnewexcitementandpowertothePresidency,ashevigorouslyledCongressandtheAmericanpublictowardprogressivereformsandastrongforeignpolicy.

HetooktheviewthatthePresidentasa"stewardofthepeople"shouldtakewhateveractionnecessaryforthepublicgoodunlessexpresslyforbiddenbylawortheConstitution."Ididnotusurppower,"hewrote,"butIdidgreatlybroadentheuseofexecutivepower."

Roosevelt'syouthdifferedsharplyfromthatofthelogcabinPresidents.HewasborninNewYorkCityin1858intoawealthyfamily,buthetoostruggled--againstillhealth--andinhistriumphbecameanadvocateofthestrenuouslife.

In1884hisfirstwife,AliceLeeRoosevelt,andhismotherdiedonthesameday.RooseveltspentmuchofthenexttwoyearsonhisranchintheBadlandsofDakotaTerritory.Therehemasteredhissorrowashelivedinthesaddle,drivingcattle,huntingbiggame--heevencapturedanoutlaw.OnavisittoLondon,hemarriedEdithCarowinDecember1886.

DuringtheSpanish-AmericanWar,RooseveltwaslieutenantcoloneloftheRoughRiderRegiment,whichheledonachargeatthebattleofSanJuan.Hewasoneofthemostconspicuousheroesofthewar.

BossTomPlatt,needingaherotodrawattentionawayfromscandalsinNewYorkState,acceptedRooseveltastheRepublicancandidateforGovernorin1898.Rooseveltwonandservedwithdistinction.

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Twenty-SixthPresident1901-1909

Born:October27,1858inNewYork,NewYork

Died:January6,1919inOysterBay,NewYork

AsPresident,RooseveltheldtheidealthattheGovernment

shouldbethegreatarbiteroftheconflictingeconomicforcesintheNation,especiallybetweencapitalandlabor,guaranteeingjusticetoeachanddispensingfavorstonone.

Rooseveltemergedspectacularlyasa"trustbuster"byforcingthedissolutionofagreatrailroadcombinationintheNorthwest.OtherantitrustsuitsundertheShermanActfollowed.

RooseveltsteeredtheUnitedStatesmoreactivelyintoworldpolitics.Helikedtoquoteafavoriteproverb,"Speaksoftlyandcarryabigstick...."

AwareofthestrategicneedforashortcutbetweentheAtlanticandPacific,RooseveltensuredtheconstructionofthePanamaCanal.HiscorollarytotheMonroeDoctrinepreventedtheestablishmentofforeignbasesintheCaribbeanandarrogatedthesolerightofinterventioninLatinAmericatotheUnitedStates.

HewontheNobelPeacePrizeformediatingtheRusso-JapaneseWar,reachedaGentleman'sAgreementonimmigrationwithJapan,andsenttheGreatWhiteFleetonagoodwilltouroftheworld.

SomeofTheodoreRoosevelt'smosteffectiveachievementswereinconservation.HeaddedenormouslytothenationalforestsintheWest,reservedlandsforpublicuse,andfosteredgreatirrigationprojects.

Hecrusadedendlesslyonmattersbigandsmall,excitingaudienceswithhishigh-pitchedvoice,juttingjaw,andpoundingfist."Thelifeofstrenuousendeavor"wasamustforthosearoundhim,asherompedwithhisfiveyoungerchildrenandledambassadorsonhikesthroughRockCreekParkinWashington,D.C.

LeavingthePresidencyin1909,RooseveltwentonanAfricansafari,thenjumpedbackintopolitics.In1912heranforPresidentonaProgressiveticket.Toreportersheonceremarkedthathefeltasfitasabullmoose,thenameofhisnewparty.

WhilecampaigninginMilwaukee,hewasshotinthechestbyafanatic.Rooseveltsoonrecovered,buthiswordsatthattimewouldhavebeenapplicableatthetimeofhisdeathin1919:"NomanhashadahappierlifethanIhaveled;ahappierlifeineveryway."

FranklinD.Roosevelt(32th)

AssumingthePresidencyatthedepthoftheGreatDepression,FranklinD.RoosevelthelpedtheAmericanpeopleregainfaithinthemselves.Hebroughthopeashepromisedprompt,vigorousaction,andassertedinhisInauguralAddress,"theonlythingwehavetofearisfearitself."

Bornin1882atHydePark,NewYork--nowanationalhistoricsite--heattendedHarvardUniversityandColumbiaLawSchool.OnSt.Patrick'sDay,1905,hemarriedEleanorRoosevelt.

Followingtheexampleofhisfifthcousin,PresidentTheodoreRoosevelt,whomhegreatlyadmired,FranklinD.Rooseveltenteredpublicservicethroughpolitics,butasaDemocrat.HewonelectiontotheNewYorkSenatein1910.PresidentWilsonappointedhimAssistantSecretaryoftheNavy,andhewastheDemocraticnomineeforVicePresidentin1920.

Inthesummerof1921,whenhewas39,disasterhit-hewasstrickenwithpoliomyelitis.Demonstratingindomitablecourage,hefoughttoregaintheuseofhislegs,particularlythroughswimming.Atthe1924DemocraticConventionhedramaticallyappearedoncrutchestonominateAlfredE.Smithas"theHappyWarrior."In1928RooseveltbecameGovernorofNewYork.

HewaselectedPresidentinNovember1932,tothefirstoffourterms.ByMarchtherewere13,000,000unemployed,andalmosteverybankwasclosed.Inhisfirst"hundreddays,"heproposed,andCongressenacted,asweepingprogramtobringrecoverytobusinessandagriculture,relieftotheunemployedandtothoseindangeroflosingfarmsandhomes,andreform,especiallythroughtheestablishmentoftheTennesseeValleyAuthority.

By1935theNationhadachievedsomemeasureofrecovery,butbusinessmenandbankerswereturningmoreandmoreagainstRoosevelt'sNewDealprogram.Theyfearedhisexperiments,wereappalledbecausehehadtakentheNationoffthegoldstandardandalloweddeficitsinthebudget,anddislikedtheconcessionstolabor.Rooseveltrespondedwithanewprogramofreform:SocialSecurity,heaviertaxesonthewealthy,new

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Thirty-SecondPresident1933-1945

Born:January30,1882inHydePark,NewYork

Died:April12,1945inWarmSprings,Georgia

MarriedtoAnnaEleanorRoosevelt

controlsoverbanksandpublicutilities,andanenormousworkreliefprogramfortheunemployed.

In1936hewasre-electedbyatop-heavymargin.Feelinghewasarmedwithapopularmandate,hesoughtlegislationtoenlargetheSupremeCourt,whichhadbeeninvalidatingkeyNewDealmeasures.RooseveltlosttheSupremeCourtbattle,butarevolutioninconstitutionallawtookplace.ThereaftertheGovernmentcouldlegallyregulatetheeconomy.

RoosevelthadpledgedtheUnitedStatestothe"goodneighbor"policy,transformingtheMonroeDoctrinefromaunilateralAmericanmanifestointoarrangementsformutualactionagains