Get格雅Unit6Food新编大学英语第二版第二册课文翻译

Unit-6-Food新编大学英语第二版第二册课文翻译Unit6FoodFoodandCulture[1]Weallhaveideasaboutwhatkindsoffoodsaregoodtoeat.Wealsohaveideasaboutwhatkindsoffoodsarebadtoeat.Asaresult,peoplefromonecultureoftenthinkthefoodsthatpeoplefromanothercultureeataredisgustingornauseating.WhenthefamousboxerMuhammadAlivisitedAfrica,forexample,onememberofhisgroupbecamequitesickwhenhesawsomeonepickupabutterflyandeatit.Manypeoplewouldfinditdisgustingtoeatrats,butthereareforty-twodifferentcultureswhosepeopleregardratsasappropriatefood.[2]SomepeopleinAfricathinkAfricantermitesmakeadeliciousmeal.Manyotherpeoplewouldprobablybesickiftheyhadtoeattermites,butonehundredgramsoftermitescontainmorethantwiceasmanycaloriesandalmosttwiceasmuchproteinasonehundredgramsofcookedhamburger.[3]However,foodlikesanddislikesdonotalwaysseemrelatedtonutrition.Forexample,broccoliisfirstonalistofthemostnutritiouscommonvegetables,butitistwenty-firstonalistofvegetablesthatAmericanslikemosttoeat.Tomatoesaresixteenthonthelistofmostnutritiousvegetables,buttheyarefirstonthelistofvegetablesthatAmericanslikemosttoeat.[4]Butdislikeisnottheonlyreasonwhysomecultureswillnoteatacertainfood.Insomecultures,certainfoodsaretaboo.TabooisawordfromthelanguageoftheFijiIslandsthatisusedtodescribesomethingthatisforbidden.Somefoodsaretabooincertainreligions,buttherearealsootherfoodtaboosthatarenotconnectedtoareligion.Wedonotusuallythinkaboutwhycertainthingsaretabooinourculture.Wemaynotevenknowwhytheyaretaboo.Anthropologiststrytodiscoverthehiddenreasonsfortaboos.Forexample,thesacredcowsofIndiaarewellknown.CowscangowherevertheywanttointhestreetsofIndia,andtheycaneatanythingtheywantfromthesuppliesofthefoodsellersonthestreet.Asaresult,thecowsareaproblem.However,nooneinIndiawillkillthemoreatthem.Itistabootodoso.Thiscustomseemsstrangetootherpeople,butanthropologistsbelievethattherearereasonsforit.First,cowsarevaluablebecausethefarmersneedthemtohelpplowtheirfields.Second,cowmanureisusedasafertilizeronthefields.InIndia,manyfarmerscannotaffordtospendmoneyonfertilizer.Third,thecowmanurecanbedriedandburnedtomakecookingfires.Therefore,farmersthatkilltheircowsformeatsoonfindthattheycannotploworfertilizetheirfieldsormakeacookingfire.[5]AnotherexampleisthatAmericansdonoteatdogs,althoughpeoplefromsomeotherculturesregardthemasgoodfood.IntheUnitedStates,dogsareveryimportanttopeopleaspets.Theyareusuallyregardedaspartofthefamily,almostlikeachildinsomecases.Inaddition,dogshavevalueasprotectionagainstcriminals.Thieveswillnotusuallyenterahousewherethereisadogbecausethedogwillbarkandpossiblyattackastrangerwhoistryingtogetintoahouse.Apparently,thedog'splaceinsocietyasacompanionandasprotectionagainstcriminalsmakesthedogtabooasfood.[6]Thetabooagainsteatingporkoccursinmorethanoneculture.ThereissomeevidencethatsomeancientEgyptiansdidnoteatpork.TheancientIsraelitesalsoregardedporkastaboo.Oneexplanationforthepig-eatingtabooisthatporkthatisnotcookedsufficientlymayspreadadiseasecalledtrichinosis.However,mostpeoplenolongerthinkthatthisisagoodexplanationfortheporktaboo.AnotherexplanationisthattheIsraeliteswerenomads—theywerealwaysmovingfromplacetoplace.Peoplehavetostayinoneplacetoraisepigs.TheIsraelitesdidnotwanttostayinoneplacebecausetheydidnotwanttochangetheirculture.Asaresult,theydidnoteatpigs.[7]Anthropologistsbelievethatmostfoodlikesanddislikesarearesultofthewaysoflifeofdifferentpeople.Somepeopleliveinareaswheretherearebothlargeanimalsandmanyinsects.Itisdifficultforthesepeopletokilllargeanimals,anditrequiresalotofenergy.Itiseasierforthemtouseinsectsforfoodbecauseitisnotdifficulttocatchinsectsanditdoesnotrequirealotofenergy.Nomadicpeoplewhomovearoundwillnotwanttokeeppigsforfood.Peoplewillnoteatpetssuchasdogs.Americanseatalotofbeefbecausethereisplentyoflandforraisingcattleandtheirmeatcanbeshippedcheaplyforlongdistancesbyrailroads.饮食与文化1对于什么样的食物好吃，我们都有自己的主见。对于什么样的食物不好吃，我们也有自己的看法。因此，某种文化背景的人常常会觉得另一种文化背景的人吃的食物难以忍受或者令人作呕。比方，在著名的拳击手穆罕默德·阿里访问非洲时，团里的一名成员看到有人抓起一只蝴蝶就吃了下去时便恶心得想呕吐。许多人会觉察吃老鼠肉令人恶心，但世界上有42种不同文化的人认为鼠肉是适宜的食物。2在非洲有些人认为非洲白蚁可以做成美餐。对于许多其他人来说，如果非吃〔白蚁〕不可的话，他们很可能会呕吐。但是，如果拿100克的白蚁和100克制作好的汉堡包相比，前者所含的热量是后者的两倍多，其所含的蛋白质也几乎是后者的两倍。3不过，对食物的好恶似乎并不一定与营养有关。例如，花椰菜在营养最丰富的常见蔬菜中排名第一，但它在美国人最喜欢的蔬菜中仅名列第二十一位。西红柿在营养最丰富的蔬菜中排名十六，但它在美国人最喜欢的蔬菜中却名列榜首。4但不喜欢并不是某些文化〔中人们〕不吃某种食物的唯一原因。在有些文化中，有些食物是禁忌。“禁忌〞一词来源于斐济群岛的语言,用来表示禁止做的事。有些食物在某些宗教中被列为禁忌，但也有一些饮食禁忌与宗教无关。通常我们不去考虑为什么在我们的文化中有些东西是禁忌。我们也许甚至不知道它们为什么是禁忌。人类学家试图发现禁忌背后隐藏的原因。例如，印度“圣牛〞为人们所熟知。牛可以在印度的大街上到处走，它们可以吃街上食品摊主所供给的食物中任何它们想吃的东西。结果，牛就成了问题。可是，在印度没人会去杀牛或吃牛肉。杀牛或吃牛肉是禁忌。这种习俗在其他人看起来似乎很奇怪，但人类学家相信这自有其原因。首先，牛是很珍贵的，因为农民需要它们帮助犁地。其次，牛粪可作地里的肥料。在印度，许多农民买不起肥料。还有，牛粪弄干后可用来烧火做饭。因此，杀牛食肉的农民很快发现他们无法犁地，无法给庄稼施肥，或者无燃料做饭。5再比方，美国人不吃狗肉,尽管其他一些文化背景的人视狗肉为佳肴。在美国，狗作为宠物对人们极为重要。通常它们被视为家庭的一局部，有时甚至还把狗当成自己的孩子。此外，狗的价值还在于防范罪犯。盗贼一般不进入有狗的住宅，因为狗会吠叫，而且可能会袭击试图进入屋子的陌生人。显而易见，狗在社会中作为伙伴及防范罪犯的卫士的角色使吃狗肉成为禁忌。6不止一种文化忌食猪肉。有迹象说明一些古埃及人不吃猪肉。古代以色列人也视猪肉为禁忌。对禁食猪肉的一种解释是，未被煮透的猪肉可能会传播一种疾病，叫旋毛虫病。但大多数人不再认为这能很好地解释禁食猪肉的原因。另一种解释是以色列人原属游牧民族——他们总是居无定所。要养猪，人们就得在某地定居下来。从前以色列人不愿在一个地方定居，因为他们不想改变自己的文化。正因如此，他们便不食猪肉。7人类学家相信，对食物的好恶大多是不同人不同生活方式的结果。有些人生活在既有大型动物又有许多昆虫的地区。他们杀死大型动物有困难，需要花很大的力气。对他们来说，以昆虫为食要容易些，因为捕捉昆虫既不困难又不需花太大的力气。四处流动、过游牧生活的人不愿意为吃肉而养猪。人们也不吃像狗那样的宠物。美国人牛肉吃得很多，因为有大量的土地可用来养牛，而且牛肉可以通过铁路以低廉的价格进行长途运输。TheMenuJimHeimann[1]Foodhistorytellsusthatinearlyrestaurantstherecitationoftheavailablefooddishesbecameanincreasinglytime-consumingchore;therefore,writtenmenusweredevelopedtohelpguidedinersintheireatingchoices.Thiswrittenmenuwascommonlyhandwrittenonachalkboardorlistedonaboardthatcouldbeeasilyseenbythecustomers.Developmentsinprintingfinallyledtoachangeandthelargerrestaurants'floorplansmadeasinglehandwrittenmenuimpractical,soprintedmenuswereintroduced.[2]Delmonico'srestaurantinNewYorkCityisoftengivencreditforintroducingthefirstprintedmenuintheUnitedStatesin1834.Thatmenu,aswellasothersoftheperiod,wassimpleindesignandofferedspecificinformation.Specialoccasionsledtoacallforuniquedesignsandeventuallyledtomorehighlydecoratedmenus.[3]Forthemostpart,however,menudecorationfollowedtheartmovementsofthetime.Thehighlydecoratedlate19thcenturymenus,whichwereinfluencedbyVictorianart,gavewaytomodernartinthe20thcentury.Developmentswithgraphicsandprintingalloweddistinctivemenucoverart.[4]Bythe1930s,themenuwasseenasapartoftherestaurant'splantocreateamemorablemeal.Itcoulddevelopanappetite,tellajoke,explainafooditem,createamood,tellsomethingofthehistoryoftherestaurant,and,aboveall,sellsomefood.Restauranttradepublicationsencouragedtheuseofthemenuaspartofthebusinessstrategy,andtheNationalRestaurantAssociationpromotedeffectivemenugraphicsinitsannualcompetitionofbestmenusinthenation.Itsguidelinesforjudgingincluded(1)originality,(2)legibility,(3)easeofhandling,and(4)saleseffectiveness.RestaurantManagementmagazineinitsNovember1935issuestatedthatmostrestaurantownersconsiderablyunderestimatedtheimportanceoftheappearanceofthemenu.Themagazinewentontosaythatthemenureallyhastwoimportantfunctions:(1)tosellfood,and(2)torepeatandemphasizetheuniqueatmosphereofthatrestaurant.[5]InspiteoftheDepressionofthe1930s,restaurantsdidwellandmenudesignbecameimportant.Therewereincreasingnumbersofmanydifferenttypesofrestaurantsduringthisdecade,includingcafeterias,drive-ins,andlunchcountersinstores,aswellasthetraditional,moreformalrestaurants.Manyoftherestaurantsdevelopedthemesinfood,decorationandmenustyles.[6]Progressinprinting,photography,andespeciallycolorphotographyopenedupmoreopportunitiesforcreativeexpression.DuringtheSecondWorldWarfoodrationingoftenhurtthebusinessofrestaurants,butassoonasvictorywasachieved,eatingoutbecameverypopularagain.[7]Inspiteoftherisksofcasualdiningandfast-foodrestaurants,themid-20thcenturyprovidedmanynewopportunitiesforcreativemenudesign.Bytheendofthe1960s,theincreasinglypopularcoffeeshopsandrestaurantsthatfeaturedasingularitemsuchaspizza,steak,orpancakesusednewmenugraphics.The1970sbroughtadeclineineatingout,butthe1980s,especiallyinhomeswherebothparentswereworking,broughtabigincreaseinthedemandformanytypesofrestaurants.Sincethen,menudesignhasprovidedtheAmericanpublicwithapleasingpreludetothediningexperience.[8]SomepopularhistoriansarestudyingmenusasaveryspecialkindofdocumentationofAmerica'sloveofeatingout.Formanygenerationsofdiners,takingarestaurantmenuhasbeenawayofpreservingamemoryordocumentingatriporavoyage.Manyrestaurantshaveprovidedcustomerswithsouvenirversionsoftheirmenus.Therestaurantownersbelievethatthisisagoodwayofadvertising.Thusthemenunowservesanew,butalsoimportantfunction.菜单1饮食的历史告诉我们：在早期的餐馆里，背诵餐馆供给的菜肴成为越来越耗时的苦差事；因此，就产生了书面的菜单，以便指导用餐者挑选食物。这种菜单通常是手工写在黑板上或列在一块牌子上，黑板或牌子都要使顾客容易看见。印刷业的开展最终又引发了变革，同时又因为一些餐馆层面的扩大使得一份手写菜单满足不了实际需求，于是印刷菜单出现了。2纽约市德尔莫尼柯餐馆于1834年在美国首次推出印刷菜单，因而常常受到人们的赞扬。那种菜单，与同时期的其它菜单一样，设计简单，还提供了具体明确的信息。特殊的场合会引发人们对设计的独特要求，最终产生了装饰更精美的菜单。3然而，多数情况下，菜单的装饰风格是随着时代的艺术潮流而变化的。19世纪后期的菜单，受维多利亚时代艺术的影响，装饰华美，到了20世纪就被现代艺术所取代。平面造型艺术与印刷术的开展使得颇具特色的菜单封面艺术得以开展。4到了20世纪30年代，餐馆为打造令人难忘的美餐，把菜单看作是实施这种方案的一局部。菜单可以引起食欲，讲个笑话，介绍某食品，创造一种气氛，讲述一点饭店的历史，而且最重要的是，推销菜肴。餐饮业的出版物那么鼓励把菜单作为经营策略的一局部。全国餐饮协会每年举办全国最优秀菜单竞赛，届时会有效地促进菜单平面造型艺术的开展。指导这种评比的标准包括〔1〕有创意〔2〕清晰易读〔3〕使用方便〔4〕销售效果好。1935年11月这一期的?饭店管理?杂志指出：大多数饭店老板都在很大程度上低估了菜单外观的重要性。该杂志接着说道，菜单其实有两种重要的功能：〔1〕推销菜肴〔2〕反复突出饭店的独特魅力。5尽管30年代经济大萧条，饭店却生意良好，菜单设计也变得很重要。这十年内，饭店种类不断增多，除了传统的较正规的饭店以外，还出现了如自助餐厅，免下车餐馆，商店里的小吃部等。许多饭店在菜肴、装饰和菜单风格上还开展了自己的主题风格。6印刷，摄影，尤其是彩色摄影方面的进步为有创意的表现手法开拓了更多的时机。第二次世界大战期间，食品的定量供给常常影响饭店的生意，但是胜利后，出去吃饭就又马上流行起来了。7尽管人们对吃饭越来越随意，同时快餐店大批涌现，但是20世纪中叶还是为有创意的菜单设计提供了很多新的时机。到60年代末期，越来越受欢送的小吃部和以专卖比萨饼、牛排或薄煎饼等特色食品的饭馆都采用了新的菜单平面设计艺术。70年代外出就餐的人减少了。但是到了80年代，特别是那些父母都上班工作的家庭，使各种各样餐馆的需求量大幅度增加。从那时起，菜单设计就为美国公众就餐提供了赏心悦目的前奏。8一些通俗历史学家正在研究菜单，他们把菜单当作美国人外出吃饭喜爱程度的一种特殊文献资料。对于好几代的就餐者来说，带走饭店的菜单一直是他们保存一段记忆或记录某次旅行或航行的手段。许多饭店为顾客提供专门留念用的菜单。饭店老板们相信这是一种很好的广告手段。因此，现在菜单又多了一种新的但也是很重要的功能。CookingandCuisines[1]Onethingthatseparatesmanfromanimalsisman'spreferenceforcookedfood.Thehigherapeshavebeenfoundtosharewithmankindtheabilitytocommunicatebysoundandgesture,butnoapehasevercookeditsfood.Wealsolikeourfoodtoappealtooursensesoftasteandsmell,andwelikeittobeattractive.Oursensesareremarkablyacuteanddiscriminating,andallsocietieswhichhaveprogressedbeyondsimplesurvivalsatisfythehumanpleasureofgoodfood.Thegreatcuisinesoftheworldhavedevelopeddisheswhichappealbothtothetasteandtotheeye—colorandtextureareasimportantasflavor.[2]Therearethreeacknowledgedgreatnationalcuisines,French,IndianandChinese.FrenchcookingisgenerallyacknowledgedtobesupremeinEurope.Frenchcuisineusingbutter,cheeseandcreamistypicalofallgreatnationalcuisines:itcombinessimplicitywithsophistication,usesthenativeresourcesofFrance,hasgreatregionalspecialtiesandhasbecometrulyinternational.[3]Thesethreemajorcuisineshavedistinguishedthemselveseachbyonemajorcharacteristic.Frenchcookingwithbutter,cheeseandcreamissotypicaloftheircookingthatifomittedthewholecharacterofthecuisinewouldbedestroyed.Also,wineincookingisasinstinctivetoaFrenchcookastheuseofsoysauceistoaChinesecook.Asecondcuisine—Indiancookingisdistinguishedbytheuseofspices.Thethirdcuisineisdefinedbytheuseofriceasastaple—Chinabeingthesupremeexample.Ofcoursethesethreecuisinessharetheircharacteristicsinonewayoranother.Frenchcuisinecanboastsomefamousricedishes.SomeIndianregionalcookeryalsomakesuseofbutterandthedishesofSichuan,inChinesecuisine,arefamousfortheirfieryspices.Buttheseparationintothreemajorcuisinesdoesmarksomekindofdistinctivecharacteristicandthethreemajorcuisines,eachbasedonadifferentmajorcharacteristic,havepersistedforalongtimethroughouthumanhistory.[4]Theborderlinesbetweencuisinestylesareclearandhavechangedlessthaneitherlinguisticorracialboundaries.India'sgifttotheworldistheuseofspicestoenhancetheflavoroffoods,andIndiancookingpresentsadazzlingarrayofregionalvariations—fromthefieryhotcurriesofthesouthtothesubtlyspicedvegetariandishesofthenorthernregions.NothingrivalsthecolorandflavorofIndiandishes,andtheuseofriceasastaplelinksIndianandChinesecooking.Chinesecooksteachusthattexturemustneverbeneglected.LongagotheChinesebroughttoperfectiontheartofswiftcookingatveryhightemperatureinwhichvegetablesretaintheircrispnessandnutritionalgoodnesstoo.Mostofthepreparationtimeistakenupbythecuttingofvegetablesandthechoppingofmeat,notbytheactualcookingprocess.[5]TheregionalvarietyofChinesedishesisbewilderingtotheforeigner.Spicy,bland,sourandsweetareallrepresented.NonationalcuisineusesthenativeplantsandanimalsmorethantheChinese.Everypartofeveryediblevegetableoranimalseemstohaveitsuse.[6]Therearethreerecentthreatstokeepingnationalcuisines:1)therevolutioninworldtransportationandcommunication,2)theincreaseintradebetweennations,and3)thechangingroleofwomeninsociety.[7]Rapidandinexpensivetransportandcommunicationmaythreatennationalcuisines.Travelersfromothercountrieswantthekindoffoodtheyareusedtoathome.Thesecondthreatiscausedbytheflowoffoodsandfoodproductsfromonecountrytoanother.Conveniencefoodsdestroythecharmoftime-consumingcooking.Anargumentcanbemadeforprocessedfoods,andthegreatbenefitsoffreezing,freeze-dryingandcanning,butWesternfoodtechnologyisstillathreattonationalcuisines.[8]Finally,thechangingroleofwomeninfluencesnationalstylesofcooking.Thechangeswhichhavealreadytakenplacehavehadaprofoundeffectonthefamily,andwillcontinue.Womenhavebeentheprimefoodpreparersforthousandsofyears.Iftheyhavelesstimeandlessinclinationtospendlonghoursinfoodpreparationandcooking,thiswillinfluencethekindofdisheswhichafamilyeats.Nowwomencanexplorefurtherthantheirownimmediatelocalityandexperience,andgatherideasandrecipesfromotherpartsoftheworld,andincorporatetheseintotheircooking.However,thethreattonationalcuisinesremains―perhapsevenreinforcedbytheobviousbenefitsmentioned.[9]Topreservedistinctivenationalcuisinesmayhavesomethingtodowithhumanbehavior.Whatunitesallgreatnationalcuisines,besidesregionalvariety,ing