参考文稿c7t3阅读

READINGPASSAGEYoushouldspendabout20minutesonQuestions1-13,whicharebasedonReadingPassage1below.AntInWhenwethinkofinligentmembersoftheanimalkingdom,thecreaturesthatspringimmediaytomindareapesandmonkeys.Butinfactthesociallivesofsomemembersoftheinsectkingdomaresufficientlycomplextosuggestmorethanahintofinligence.Amongthese,theworldoftheanthascomeinforconsiderablescrutinylay,andtheideathatantsdemonstratesparksofcognitionhascertainlynotbeenrejectedbythoseinvolvedintheseinvestigations.Antsstorefood,repelattackersandusechemicalsignalstocontactoneanotherincaseofattack.Suchchemicalcommunicationcanbecomparedtothehumanuseofvisualandauditorychannels——Q1(asinreligiouschants,advertisingimagesandjingles,politicalslogansandmartialmusic)toarouseandpropagatemoodsandattitudes.ThebiologistLewisThomaswrote,'Antsaresomuchlikehumanbeingsastobeanembarrassment.Theyfarmfungi,raiseaphids*aslivestock,launcharmiestowar,usechemicalspraystoalarmandconfuseenemies,captureslaves,engageinchildlabour,exchangeinformationceaselessly.Theydoeverythingbutwatchevision.However,inantsthereisnoculturaltransmission—everythingmustbeencodedinthegenes—whereasinhumanstheoppositeistrue.Onlybasicinstinctsarecarriedinthegenesofanewbornbaby,otherskillsbeinglearnedfromothersinthecommunityasthechildgrowsup.Itmayseemthatthisculturalcontinuitygivesusahugeadvantageoverants.Theyhavenevermasteredfirenorprogressed.Theirfungusfarmingandaphidherdingcraftsaresophisticatedwhencomparedtotheagriculturalskillsofhumansfivethousandyearsagobuthavebeentotallyovertakenbymodernhumanagribusiness.Orhavethey?Thefarmingmethodsofantsareatleastsustainable.——Q11Theydonotruinenvironmentsoruseenormousamountsofenergy.——Q12、13Moreover,recentevidencesuggeststhatthecropfarmingofantsmaybemoresophisticatedandadaptablethanwasthought.Antswerefarmersfiftymillionyearsbeforehumanswere.Antscan'tdigestthecelluloseinleaves—butsomefungican.——Q7Theantsthereforecultivatethesefungiintheirnests,bringingthemleavestofeedon,andthenusethemasasourceoffood.Farmerantssecreteantibioticstocontrolotherfungithatmighta'weeds',andspreadwastetofertilisethecrop.——Q8、9Itwasoncethoughtthatthefungusthatantscultivatewasasingletypethattheyhadpropagated,essentiallyunchangedfromthedistantpast.Notso.UlriuellerofMarylandandhiscolleaguesgeneticallyscreened862differenttypesoffungiysisofthefromants'nests.Theseturnedouttobehighlydiverse:itseemsthatantsarecontinuallydomesticatingnewspecies.ysisofthesuggeststhattheantsimproveormodifythefungibyregularlyswap andsharingstrainswithneighbouringantcolonies.——Q10Whereasprehistoricmanhadnoexposuretourbanlifestyles-theforcinghouseofinligence——Q2-theevidencesuggeststhatantshavelivedinurbansettingsforcloseonahundredmillionyears,develoandmaintainingundergroundcitiesofspecialisedchambersandtunnels.WhenwesurveyMexicoCity,Tokyo,LosAngeles,weareamazedatwhathasbeenplishedbyhumans.YetHoelldoblerandWilson'smagnificentworkforantlovers,TheAnts,describesasupercolonyoftheantFormicayessensisontheIshikariCoastofHokkaido.This'megalopolis'——Q3wasreportedtobecomposedof360millionworkersandamillionqueenslivingin4,500interconnectednestsacrossterritoryof2.7squareSuchenduringandintricaymeshedlevelsoftechnicalachievementoutstripbyfaranythingachievedbyourdistantancestors.WehailasmasterpiecesthecavepaintingsinsouthernFranceandelsewhere,datingbacksome20,000years.Antsocietiesexistedinsomethingliketheirpresentformmorethanseventymillionyearsago.Besidethis,prehistoricmanlookstechnologicallyprimitive.Isthisthensomekindofinligence,albeitofadifferentkind?ResearchconductedatOxford,SussexandZurichUniversitieshasshownthatwhendesertantsreturnfromaforagingtrip,theynavigatebyintegratingbearingsanddistances——Q4,whichtheycontinuouslyupdateintheirheads.Theycombinetheevidenceofvisuallandmarkswithamentallibraryoflocaldirections,allwithinaframeworkwhichisconsultedandupdated.SoantscanlearnAndinatwelve-yearprogrammeofwork,RyabkoandReznikovahavefoundevidencethatantscantransmitverycomplexmessages.Scoutswhohadlocatedfoodinamazereturnedtomobilisetheirforagingteams——Q5.Theyengagedincontactsessions,atofwhichthescoutwasremovedinordertoobservewhatherteammightdo.Oftentheforagersproceededtotheexactspotinthemazewherethefoodhadbeen.Elaborateprecautionsweretakentopreventtheforagingteamusingodourclues——Q5.Discussionnowcentresonwhethertheroutethroughthemazeiscommunicatedasa'left-right'sequenceofturnsorasa'compassbearinganddistance'message.Duringthecourseofthisexhaustivestudy,Reznikovahasgrownsoattachedtoherlaboratoryantsthatshefeelssheknowsthemasindividuals—evenwithoutthepaintspotsusedtomarkthem.It'snosurprisethatEdwardWilson,inhisessay,'Inthecompanyofants',advisesreaderswhoaskwhattodowiththeantsintheirkitchento:'Watchwhereyoustep.Becarefuloflittlelives.'Questions1-DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninReadingPassageInboxes1-6onyouranswersheet,TRUEifthestatementagreeswiththeinformationFALSEifthestatementcontradictstheinformationNOTGIVENinthereisnoinformationonthis1Antsusethesamechannelsofcommunicationashumanschannelscommunication22句。原文中说蚂蚁chemicalcommunication（化学物质交流，而接下来说人类的是visualauditoryauditorychannel（相同，二者表述 ，答案为FALSESuchchemicalcommunicationcanbecomparedtothehumanuseofvisualandauditorychannels这种化学物质交流方式好比人类使用的视觉和听这种化学物质交流方式好比人类使用的视觉和听 解题关键是对compare的正确理解，即可“比作”，但并非完全相同。2Citylifeisonefactorthatencouragesthedevelopmentofinligence.解析：通过citylifeurbanlifestyletheforcinghouse（温床）对应encourage。Inligence未发生变化。题目与原文表述一致，答案为TRUE。 Whereasprehistoricmanhadnoexposuretourbanlifestyles-theforcinghouse 然而，史前人类没有接触过城市生活——Antscanbuildlargecitiesmorequicklythanhumans答案：NOTlargecitiesmegalopolis（特大都市，题目中说蚂蚁NOTGIVEN。This文中唯一与largecity类似的词就是megalopolis（巨大城市，但并未提及是否比Someantscanfindtheirwaybymakingcalculationsbasedondistanceandmakingcalculationdistance并未替换，题目中的，integrating（应文章中的calculation（计算。所有的细节全部找到，逻辑关系并未变化。表述一致，答案为TRUE。theynavigatebyintegratingbearingsand对integratingInoneexperiment,foragingteamswereabletousetheirsenseofsmelltofind解析：通过foragingteams23行。再根据senseofsmell定位到本段倒数第二句（对应odour：气味。题目中说在实验中，蚂蚁能够利用嗅觉寻找食物，但是原文中说Elaborateprecautionsweretakentopreventtheforagingteamusingodourclues。我们看到preventtheforagingteamusingodourclues预防觅食队使用气味线索)。因此题目与原文表述相。答案为FALSE。详尽的预防措施用 觅食队找到气味线索Elaborateprecautionsweretakentopreventtheforagingteam详尽的预防措施用 觅食队找到气味线索odour（气味）与senseofsmell（嗅觉）意义相同，preventusingodourclues即阻Theessay,‘Inthecompanyofants’,exploresant答案：NOT解析：通过heessay,‘Inthecompanyofants’,定位到文章最后一段，文中并未提到antcommunication（蚂蚁的交流。答案为NOTGIVEN。Questions7-Completethesummaryusingthelistofwords,A-O,Writethecorrectletter,A-O,inboxes7-13onyouranswerAAaphidsBagriculturalCcelluloseDexchangingEenergyFfertilizersGfoodHfungiIgrowingJinterbreedingKnaturalLotherspecesMsecretionsNsustainableOenvironmentAntsasAntshavesophisticatedmethodsoffarming,includingherdinglivestockandgrowingcrops,whichareinmanywayssimilartothoseusedinhumanagriculture.Theantscultivatealargenumberofdifferentspeciesofediblefungiwhichconvert intoaformwhichtheycandigest.digestconvert…into…得知，“转换”后为“它们可cellulose（纤维素C.cellulose。AntsAntscan'tdigestthecelluloseinleaves—butsomefungi“digest”和“fungin”是原词重现，而“cellulose”是“digest”的宾语，同时也是Theyusetheirownnatural asweed-killersandalsouseunwantedas9Geneticysisshowstheyconstantlyupgradethesefungibydevelonewspeciesandby10. specieswithneighbouringantcolonies.weeds定位到原文。原文中说controlotherfungias“weeds”，对应词是secrete（分泌M.secretions(分泌的名词)。'weeds','weeds',Farmerantssecreteantibioticstocontrolotherfungithatmight蚂蚁农夫分泌多种抗生蚂蚁农夫分泌多种抗生素 其它可能成为“杂草”的真菌，并农夫蚂蚁分泌抗生素来控制那些可能演变为农夫蚂蚁分泌抗生素来控制那些可能演变为“杂草”的真菌，并 一些废解析：本题需填入名词。Unwantedmaterials对应原文中的waste，use对应spread（，原文中说spreadwastetofertilisethecrop.再结合选项中的词，F.fertilizers作为fertilise的名词成为答案。Farmerantssecreteantibioticstocontrolotherfungithatmighta 'weeds',andspreadwastetofertilisethecrop. fertilise和fertilizer解析：根据upgrade…fungi定位到原文，与原文中的improveormodifythefungi对应。neighbouringantcolonies在文中未发生变化。原文中的swapandsharing即为答案，选项中只有Dexchanging与之相对应。答案为D。DNADNA ysisofthefungisuggeststhattheantsimproveormodifythefungibyregularlyswap andsharingstrainswithneighbouringantcolonies. 换 菌株，来提高或者调解（交换）的意思，即exchangingfungi解（交换）的意思，即exchangingInfact,thefarmingmethodsofantscouldbesaidtobemoreadvancedthanhumanagribusiness,sincethemethodsofantscouldbesaidtobemoreadvancedthanhumanagribusiness,sincetheyuse11methods,theydonotaffectthe donotwaste13解析：通过methods定位到第3段第2句，修饰methods的形容词为Thefarmingmethodsofantsareatleastsustainable.sustainable是原词重现。Theydonotruinenvironmentsoruseenormousamountsofenergy,在这里ruin和affect意思接近。解析：这两道题可以一起做。原文中的donotruin(不损害)对应题目中的donotTheydonotruinenvironmentsoruseenormousamountsofenergy.——Q12、13他总结：这篇文章只涉及了两种题型（判断题和填空题，主要了16-18READINGPASSAGEPopulationmovementsandAStudyoftheoriginsanddistributionofhumanpopulationsusedtobebasedonarchaeologicalandfossilevidence.Anumberoftechniquesdevelopedsincethe1950s,however,haveplacedthestudyofthesesubjectsonasounderandmoreobjectivefooting.——Q14Thebestinformationonearlypopulationmovementsisnowbeingobtainedfromthe'archaeologyofthelivingbody',thecluestobefoundingeneticmaterial.BRecentworkontheproblemofwhenpeoplefirstenteredtheAmericasisanexampleofthevalueofthesenewtechniques.——Q15North-eastAsiaandSiberiahavelongbeenacceptedasthelaunchinggroundforthefirsthumancolonisersoftheNewWorld1.ButwasthereonemajorwaveofmigrationacrosstheBeringStraitintotheAmericas,orseveral?Andwhendidthisevent,orevents,takeplace?Inrecentyears,newclueshavecomefromresearchintogenetics,includingthedistributionofgeneticmarkersinmodernNativeAmericans2.CAnimportantproject,ledbythebiologicalanthropologistRobertWilliams,focusedonthevariants(calledGmallotypes)ofoneparticularprotein—immunoglobinG—foundinthefluidportionofhumanblood.Allproteins'drift',orproducevariants,overthegenerations,andmembersofaninterbreedinghumanpopulationwillshareasetofsuchvariants.Thus,bycomparingtheGmallotypesoftwodifferentpopulations(e.g.twontribes),onecanestablishtheirgenetic'distance',whichitselfcanbecalibratedtogiveanindicationofthelengthoftimesincethesepopulationslastinterbred.——Q16DWilliamsandhiscolleaguessampledthebloodofover5,000AmericannsinwesternNorthAmericaduringatwenty-yearperiod.TheyfoundthattheirGmallotypescouldbedividedintotwogroups,oneofwhichalsocorrespondedtothegenetictyofCentralandSouthAmericanns.OthertestsshowedthattheInuit(orEskimo)andAleut3formedathirdgroup.——Q22FromthisevidenceitwasdeducedthattherehadbeenthreemajorwavesofmigrationacrosstheBeringStrait.——Q17、20Thefirst,Paleo-lndian,wavemorethan15,000yearsagowasancestraltoallCentralandSouthAmericanns.——Q20、24、25Thesecondwave,about14,000-12,000yearsago,broughtNa-Denehunters,ancestorsoftheNavajoandApache(whoonlymigratedsouthfromCanadaabout600or700yearsago).——Q21、23Thethirdwave,perhaps10,000or9,000yearsago,sawthemigrationfromNorth-eastAsiaofgroupsancestraltothemodernEskimoandEHowfardoesotherresearchsupporttheseconclusion?——Q18GeneticistDouglasWallacehasstudiedmitochondrialDNA4inbloodsamplesfromthreewidelyseparatedNativeAmericangroups:Pima-Papagons——Q24inArizona,MayansontheYucatanpeninsula,Mexico,andTicunans——Q25intheUpperAmazonregionofBrazil.AswouldhavebeenpredictedbyRobertWilliams'swork,allthreegroupsappeartobedescendedfromthesameancestral(Paleo-lndian)population.——Q24、25FTherearetwootherkindsofresearchthathavethrownsomelightontheoriginsoftheNativeAmericanpopulation;theyinvolvethestudyofteethandof—Q19.ThebiologicalanthropologistChristyTurner——Q26isanexpertintheysisofchangingphysicalcharacteristicsinhumanteeth.Hearguesthattoothcrownsandroots5haveahighgeneticcomponent,minimallyaffectedbyenvironmentalandotherfactors.StudiescarriedoutbyTurnerofmanythousandsofNewandOldWorldspecimens,bothancientandmodern——Q26,suggestthatthemajorityofprehistoricAmericansarelinkedtoNorthernAsianpopulationsbycrownandroottraitssuchasincisorshoveling(ascoooutononeorbothsurfacesofthetooth),single-rootedupperfirstpremolarsandtriple-rootedfirstAccordingtoTurner,thistiesinwiththeideaofasinglePaleo-lndianmigrationoutofNorthAsia,whichhesetsatbefore14,000yearsagobycalibratingratesofdentalmicro-evolution.ToothysesalsosuggestthatthereweretwolatermigrationsofNa-DenesandEskimo-Aleut.GThelinguistJosephGreenberghas,sincethe1950s,arguedthatallNativeAmericanlanguagesbelongtoasingle'Amerind'family,exceptforNa-DeneandEskimo-Aleut-aviewthatgivescredencetotheideaofthreemainmigrations.Greenbergisinaminorityamongfellowlinguists,mostofwhomfavourthenotionofagreatmanywavesofmigrationtoaccountforthemorethan1,000languagesspokenatonetimebyAmericanns.ButthereisnodoubtthatthenewgeneticanddentalevidenceprovidesstrongbackingforGreenberg'sview.Datesgivenforthemigrationsshouldneverthelessbetreatedwithcaution,exceptwheresupportedbyhardarchaeologicalevidence.AsiaandAfricamodernNativeAmerican:anAmericandescendedfromthegroupsthatwerenativetoAmericaInuitandAleut:twooftheethnicgroupsnativetothenorthernregionsofNorthAmerica(i.e.northernCanadaandGreenland)DNA:thesubstanceinwhichgeneticinformationiscrown/root:partsoftheincisor/premolar/molar:kindsofYoushouldspendabout20minutesonQuestions14-26,whicharebasedonReadingPassage2onthefollowingpages.Questions14-ReadingPassage2hassevensections,A-ChoosethecorrectheadingsforsectionsA-Ffromthelistofheadingsbelow.Writethecorrectnumber,i-x,inboxes14-19onyouranswersheet.ListListofiTheresultsoftheresearchintoblood-variantsiiDentalevidenceiiiGreenberg’sysisofthedentalandlinguisticevidenceivDevelopmentsinthemethodsusedtostudyearlypopulationvnmigrationfromCanadatotheviFurthergeneticevidencerelatingtothethree-wavetheoryviiLong-standingquestionsaboutprehistoricmigrationtoviiiingviewsofthethree-wavetheory,basedonnon-geneticevidenceixQuestionsaboutthecausesofprehistoricmigrationtoAmericaxHowysisofblood-variantsmeasurestheclosenessoftherelationshipbetweendifferentpopulations答案：ivDevelopmentsinthemethodsusedtostudyearlypopulation12句提到一系列技术进步改变研究方法。选项iv中的developmentsinthemethods对应文章中的anumberoftechniquesdeveloped;tostudyearlypopulationmovements研究早期人口迁移)对应前文提到的studyoftheoriginsanddistributionofhuman（人（人 与分布的研究。本题答案为ivAnumberoftechniquesdevelopedsincethe1950s,however,haveplacedthestudyofthesesubjectsonasounderandmoreobjectivefooting.2050年代以来，技术的不断进步，为相关研究提供了更加牢固客答案：viiLong-standingquestionsaboutprehistoricmigrationto解析：B段首句中提到peoplefirstenteredtheAmericas（最早到达美洲的人们))对应选项vii中的prehistoricmigrationtoAmerica(到达美洲的史前Question对应problem，答案为vii。本题注意不要误选ix。虽然选项中也出现了prehistoricmigrationtoAmericacause（原因，而原文中并RecentworkontheproblemofwhenpeoplefirstenteredtheAmericasisanexampleofthevalueofthesenewtechniques.在确定早期人类进入美洲大陆的时候，在确定早期人类进入美洲大陆的时候， 研究进展极好地体现了新技术16Section答案：xHow ysisofblood-variantsmeasurestheclosenessoftherelationshipbetweendifferentpopulations解析：通过variants一词确定i和x两项，再通过distance（距离）一词选出答案xdistancexcloseness（亲疏、远近。i（结果）bycomparingtheGmallotypesoftwodifferentpopulations(e.g.twontribes),onecanestablishtheirgenetic'distance',whichitselfcanbecalibratedtogiveanindicationofthelengthoftimesincethesepopulationslastinterbred.比较不同种群（例如两个印第安部落）的Gm异源型，就可以确定它们间的基通过比较两个不同种族的通过比较两个不同种族的Gm型，我们就可以确定他们 距离，这个校 答案：iTheresultsoftheresearchintoblood-解析：根据C段中variants(calledGmallotypes)可知，bloodvariants和Gmallotypes是相同的意思。D段中说TheyfoundthattheirGmallotypes（他们发现…）…Fromthisevidence从这些看).这些都是在说结果问题，对应i选项中的Theresultsoftheresearchintoblood-variants（血液变体的研究结果。vi选项虽然提到了三个浪潮理论，但是前面的Furthergeneticevidence（的）在原文中并没有体现，因此答案为iFromthisevidenceitwasdeducedthattherehadbeenthreemajorwavesofmigrationacrosstheBeringStrait.18答案：viFurthergeneticevidencerelatingtothethree-wave解析：E1句中的supporttheseconclusion（支持这些结论，而结论指的就是上一段中threewavetheory（三个浪潮理论，otherresearchvi选项中的furthergeneticevidence。Vii选项中的ingviews（有的观点）Howfardoesotherresearchsupportthese这一段提出这一段提出 支持三 浪潮理论答案：iiDental1句总述有另两种研究方向：牙齿和语言。下面全部是具体牙齿研究的例子。iiiGreenberg在整段中都没有提到。因此本题答案为ii。TherearetwootherkindsofresearchthathavethrownsomelightontheoriginsoftheNativeAmericanpopulation;theyinvolvethestudyofteethandoflanguages另外两项研究也为美洲印第安种另外两项研究也为美洲印第安种 提供了帮助。它们分别是牙齿和语言TheThebiologicalanthropologistCTs一名研究牙齿遗传特性 ，并提出相应据支持散据支持散 理论ExampleExampleSectionQuestions20andThediscussionofWilliams’sresearchindicatestheperiodsatwhichearlypeoplearethoughttohavemigratedalongcertainroutes.Therearesixroutes,A-F,markedonmapCompletethetableWritethecorrectletter,A-F,inboxes20and21onyouranswerPeriod(numberofyears15,000or600to通过15，000定位到D段倒数第3句，根据句中的toallCentralandSouthAmericannsE，FacrosstheBeringStrait断定，答案为E。andSouthThefirst,Paleo-lndian,wavemorethan15,000yearsagowasancestralandSouth15，000雅思阅读中最容易定位雅思阅读中最容易定位 就是数字D2migratedsouthfrom可确定答案为DThesecondwave,about14,000-12,000yearsago,broughtNa-Denehunters,ancestorsoftheNavajoandApache(whoonlymigratedsouthfromCanadaabout600or700yearsago).第二群为大约14，000-12，000年前的纳迪亚猎手，他们是纳瓦霍人和阿帕切人EarlyPopulationMovementtotheQuestions22-ReadingPassage2referstothethree-wavetheoryofearlymigrationtotheAmericas.ItalsosuggestsinwhichofthesethreewavestheancestorsofvariousgroupsofmodernnativeAmericansfirstreachedthecontinent.ClassifythegroupsnamedinthetablebelowasoriginatingAthefirstwaveBthesecondwaveCthethirdwaveWritethecorrectletter,A,BorC,inboxes22-25onyouranswerNameofPima-解析：通过选项A，B，C定位到文章D根据Inuit定位到D段第3句，根据文中所说的formathirdgroup得出答案为C。此外，D段最后一句中也提到了thethirdwave，saw…groupsancestraltothemodernEskimoandAleut(3次浪潮了爱斯基摩人和阿留申人的祖先的迁移).而爱斯基摩人就是因纽特人，这一点D5行中已经提到。Thethirdwave,perhaps10,000or9,000yearsago,sawthemigrationfromNorth-eastAsiaofgroupsancestraltothemodernEskimoandAleut.10，0009，000年前来自东北亚，他们是今天爱斯基摩人和阿留第三第三 是大概10000到9000年前，这Apache定位到D2句，文中直接提到了thesecondwave。答案为B。Thesecondwave,about14,000-12,000yearsago,broughtNa-Denehunters,ancestorsoftheNavajoandApache(whoonlymigratedsouthfromCanadaabout600or700yearsago).第二群为大约14，000-12，000年前的纳迪亚猎手，他们是纳瓦霍人和阿帕切人第二波是大约14000-12000年以前，这波是纳德内猎手，他们是那瓦霍解析：通过Pima-Papago定位到E段第3行，但是无法直接得出答案。通过继续阅读发现Pima-Papago的祖先是Paleo-n。而根据D段可知，Paleo-n属于firstwave。答案为A。andSouthThefirst,Paleo-lndian,wavemorethan15,000yearsagowasancestralandSouth15，000 是大约15000年以前，他们是古印第安人，他们是所有中南美洲印解析：通过Ticuna同样可以定位到E24题一样。答案为AandSouthThefirst,Paleo-lndian,wavemorethan15,000yearsagowasancestralandSouth15，000年前的古印第安人，即今天中南美洲印第安人的祖先。QuestionChoosethecorrectletter,A,B,CorWritethecorrectletterinbox26onyouranswerChristyTurner’sresearchinvolvedtheexaminationAteethfrombothprehistoricandmodernAmericansandBthousandsofpeoplewholiveineithertheNewortheOldCdentalspecimensfromthemajorityofprehistoricDtheeatinghabitsofAmericanandAsianChristyTurnerFStudy（研究）对应题目中的examination(检查)。因为后面谈到的都是牙齿，因而前面的（样本）NewandOldWorldspecimens,bothancientandmodern（新旧世界的样本、包括古代和现代的A选项中的prehistoricandmodern（史前和现代。答案为A。StudiescarriedoutbyTurnerofmanythousandsofNewandOldWorldspecimens,bothancientandmodern 17-2017-20 READINGPASSAGEYoushouldspendabout20minutesonQuestions27-40,whicharebasedonPassage3Forestsareoneofthemainelementsofournaturalheritage.ThedeclineofEurope'sforestsoverthelastdecadeandahalfhasledtoanincreasingawarenessandunderstandingoftheseriousimbalanceswhichthreatenthem.EuropeancountriesareingincreasinglyconcernedbymajorthreatstoEuropeanforests,threatswhichknownofrontiersotherthanthoseofgeographyorclimate:airpollution,soildeterioration,theincreasingnumberofforestfiresandsometimeseventhemismanagementofourwoodlandandforestheritage.Therehasbeenagrowingawarenessoftheneedforcountriestogettogethertoco-ordinatetheirpolicies.InDecember1990,StrasbourghostedthefirstMinisterialConferenceontheprotectionofEurope'sforests.Theconferencebroughttogether31countriesfrombothWesternandEasternEurope.Thetopicsdiscussedincludedthecoordinatedstudyofthedestructionofforests,aswellashowtocombatforestfiresandtheextensionofEuropeanresearchprogramsontheforestecosystem.Thepreparatoryworkfortheconferencehadbeenundertakenattwomeetingsofexperts.TheirinitialtaskwastodecidewhichofthemanyforestproblemsofconcerntoEuropeinvolvedthelargestnumberofcountriesandmightbethesubjectofjointaction.Thoseconfinedtoparticulargeographicalareas,suchascountriesborderingtheMediterraneanortheNordiccountriesthereforehadtobediscarded.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatinfuturetheywillbeignored.——Q27、28Asawhole,Europeancountriesseeforestsasperformingatriplefunction:biological,economicandrecreational.Thefirstistoaa'greenlung'forourplanet;bymeansofphotosynthesis,forestsproduceoxygenthroughthetransformationofsolarenergy,thusfulfillingwhatforhumansistheessentialroleofanimmense,non-pollutingpowerplant.Atthesametime,forestsproviderawmaterialsforhumanactivitiesthroughtheirconstantlyrenewedproductionofwood.——Q29Finally,theyofferthosecondemnedtospendfivedaysaweekinanurbanenvironmentanunrivalledareaoffreedomtounwindandtakepartinarangeofleisureactivities,suchashunting,ridingandhiking.Theeconomicimportanceofforestshasbeenunderstoodsincethedawnofman—woodwasthefirstfuel.Theotheraspectshavebeenrecognisedonlyforafewcenturies——Q30buttheyare ingmoreandmoreimportant.Hence,thereisarealconcernthroughoutEuropeaboutthedamagetotheforestenvironmentwhichthreatensthesethreebasicroles.Themythofthe'natural'foresthassurvived,yetthereareeffectivelynoremaining'primary'forestsinEurope.——Q31AllEuropeanforestsareartificial,havingbeenadaptedandexploitedbymanforthousandsofyears.Thismeansthataforestpolicyisvital,thatitmusttranscendnationalfrontiersandgenerationsofpeople,——Q32andthatitmustallowfortheinevitablechangesthattakeplaceintheforests,inneeds,andhenceinpolicy.TheStrasbourgconferencewasoneofthefirsteventsonsuchascaletoreachthisconclusion.——Q33Ageneraldeclarationwasmadethat'acentralinanyecologicallycoherentforestpolicymustbegiventocontinuityovertimeandtothepossibleeffectsofunforeseenevents,toensurethatthefullpotentialoftheseforestsismaintained'.Thatgeneraldeclarationwas paniedbysixdetailedresolutionstoassistnationalpolicy-making.Thefirstproposestheextensionandsystematisationofsurveillancesitestomonitorforestdecline.——Q34Forestdeclineisstillpoorlyunderstoodbutleadstothelossofahighproportionofatree'sneedlesorleaves.Theentirecontinentandthemajorityofspeciesarenowaffected:between30%and50%ofthetreepopulation.Theconditionappearstoresultfromthecumulativeeffectofanumberoffactors,withatmosphericpollutantstheprincipalculprits.Compoundsofnitrogenandsulphurdioxideshouldbeparticularlycloselywatched.However,theireffectsareprobablyaccentuatedbyclimaticfactors,suchasdroughtandhardwinters,orsoilimbalancessuchassoilacidification,whichdamagestheroots.ThesecondresolutionconcentratesontheneedtopreservethegeneticdiversityofEuropeanforests.——Q35Theaimistoreversethedeclineinthenumberoftreespeciesoratleasttopreservethe'geneticmaterial'ofallofthem.AlthoughforestfiresdonotaffectallofEuropetothesameextent,theamountofdamagecausedtheexpertstoproposeasthethirdresolutionthattheStrasbourgconferenceconsidertheestablishmentofaEuropeandatabankonthesubject.Q36Allinformationusedinthedevelopmentofnationalpreventativepolicieswould egenerallyavailable.Thesubjectofthefourthresolutiondiscussedbytheministerswasmountainforests.——Q37InEurope,itisundoubtedlythemountainecosystemwhichhaschangedmostrapidlyandismostatrisk.Athinlyscatteredpermanentpopulationanddevelopmentofleisureactivities,particularlyskiing,haveresultedinsignificantlong-termchangestothelocalecosystems.Proposeddevelopmentsincludeapreferentialresearchprogramonmountainforests.ThefifthresolutionrelaunchedtheEuropeanresearchnetworkonthephysiologyoftrees,calledEurosilva.EurosilvashouldsupportjointEuropeanresearchontreediseasesandtheirphysiologicalandbiochemicalaspects——Q38..Eachcountryconcernedcouldincreasethenumberofscholarshipsandotherfinancialsupportfordoctoralthesesandresearchprojectsinthisarea.Finally,theconferenceestablishedtheframeworkforaEuropeanresearchnetworkonforestecosystems——Q39.Thiswouldalsoinvolveharmonisingactivitiesinindividualcountriesaswellasidentifyinganumberofpriorityresearchtopicsrelatingtotheprotectionofforests.TheStrasbourgconference'smainconcernwastoprovideforthefuture.Thiswastheinitialmotivation,onenowsharedbyall31participantsrepresenting31Europeancountries.Theirfinaltextcommitsthemtoon-goingdiscussionbetweenernmentrepresentativeswithresponsibilityforforests.Questions27-Dothefollowingstateme