词汇学课本练习答案

Unit11.主观题2.HowdidtheNormanConquestandtheRenaissanceinfluencetheEnglishvocabulary?Thetransitionalperiod（转型时期）fromOldEnglishtoModernEnglishisknownasMiddleEnglish（ME）,whichischaracterizedbythestronginfluenceofFrenchfollowingtheNormanConquestin1066,Frenchwasusedforallstateaffairsandformostsocialandculturematters,whichinfluencedEnglishindailylife.TheEnglishlanguagefrom1500tothepresentiscalledModernEnglish.IntheearlystageofthisperiodtheRenaissance（文艺复兴）broughtgreatchangetothevocabulary.Therenewed（复兴的）studyofGreekintheRenaissancenotonlyledtotheborrowingofGreekwordsindirectlythroughthemedium（媒介）ofLatin,butalsoledtotheintroductionofsomeGreekwordsdirectlyintoEnglishvocabulary.Greekborrowingsweremostlyliterary,technicalandscientificwords,（page4~5）thecausesfortherapidgrowthofneologisms（新词，旧词新意，新词的创造者/使用者）afterWorldWarII.Givefourexamplesforeachcause.markedprogressofscienceandtechnology.Example:toblastoff（炸掉，炸毁）,tocountdown,capsule,launchingpadsocio-economic（社会经济）,politicalandculturalchanges.Example:roller-hockey,surfriding,skydiving（跳伞运动）,disignatedhittertheinfluencefromotherculturesandlanguages（page6~7）Example:cosmonaut,discotheque（小舞厅，迪斯科舞厅）,ombudsman（调查官员舞弊情况的政府官员）,apartheid（种族隔离）.arethefundamentalfeaturesofthebasicwordstock（词库）oftheEnglishvocabulary?（1）.Nationalcharacter（全民通用性）：Wordsofthebasicwordstockbelongtothepeopleasawhole,nottoalimitedgroup.（2）.Stability（稳定性）:Aswordsinthebasicwordstockdenotethecommonestthingsnecessarytolife,theyarelikelytoremainunchanged.However,acertainnumberofOldEnglishwordshavedroppedoutofthebasicwordstock,whilenewwordshavejoinedtherankofbasicwords,followingsocialandtechnologicalchanges.（3）.Word-formingability（构词）:Basicwordsareveryactiveinformingnewwords..Abilitytoformcollocations(搭配能力)：Basicwordscombinereadilywithotherwordstoformhabitualexpressionsandphrases.Sincethegreatmajorityofthebasicwordstockarenativewords,theyarenaturallytheonesusedmostfrequentlyineverydayspeechandwriting.(Page10paragraph4,5,7,8andPage11paragraph2)5.WhatarethecharacteristicsoftheEnglishvocabularyasaresultofitshistoricaldevelopment?ThehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglishlanguageshowsthatEnglishisaheavyborrower;ithasadoptedwordsfromalmosteveryknownlanguage,especiallyfromLatin,FrenchandGreek.(page18.)dowesaythatnativewordsarethecoreoftheEnglishvocabulary?First,becausethenativewordsformthegreatmajorityofthebasicwordstockoftheEnglishlanguage.Andthebasicwordstockisthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedoveranumberofepochs.Second,theymakeupthemostfamiliar,mostusefulpartoftheEnglishvocabulary.SowesaythatnativewordsarethecoreoftheEnglishvocabularyforitsimportance.(Page10paragraph2,andPage19paragraph2)dowemeanbyliteraryandcommonwords?(1)Commonorpopularwordsarewordsconnectedwiththeordinarythingsoractivitiesnecessarytoeverydaylife.ThegreatmajorityofEnglishwordsarecommonwords.Thecoreofthecommonwordsisthebasicwordstock.Theyarestylistically(在文体上)neutral,andhencetheyareappropriateinbothformalandinformalwritingandspeech.(Page11paragraph6)(2)Literarywordsarechieflyusedinwriting,especiallyinbookswritteninamoreelevated(升高的，提高的，崇高的)style,inofficialdocuments,orinformalspeeches.Theyarecomparativelyseldomusedinordinaryconversation.(Page12paragraph1)Chapter2Q1:Explainthefollowingtermsandprovideexample:Morphemic形位Allomorph形位变体freeandboundmorphemichybrid混合词Morphemic:thesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunitoflanguage,notdivisibleoranalyzableintosmallerforms.Example:nation(page21,paragraph2,line1)Allomorph:anyofthevariantformsofamorphemicasconditionedbypositionoradjoiningsounds.Example:books,pigs.(page22,paragraph3,line4)Freemorphemic:onethatcanbeutteredalonewithmeaning.Example:man，read，faith(page23,paragraph2,line1To2)Boundmorphemic:cannotstandbyitselfasacompleteutterance表达;itmustappearwithatleastoneothermorphemic.Example:unkind(page23,paragraph2,line4)Hybrid:awordmadeupofelementsformtwoormoredifferentlanguage.Example:goddess,rewrite.(page27,paragraph2,line4)Q2.Whatarethedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixes?P26页第4段开头P29页第4自然段末尾Inflectionalaffixes（屈折词缀）arerelatedtogrammaronly.Derivationalaffixes（派生词缀）aresubdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes,whicharerelatedtotheformationofnewwords.Roots,prefixes前缀andsuffixes后缀.arethebuildingblockswithwhichwordsareformed.Thenumberofderivationalaffixes,althoughlimited,ismuchlargerthanthatofinflectionalaffixes.Q3:Inwhattwowaysarederivationalaffixes派生词缀classified?p26Derivationalaffixesareclassifiedinprefixes前缀andsuffixes后缀.Q4:Howarewordsclassifiedonthemorphemic（语素的）level?P29paragraph5Onthemorphemiclevel,wordscanbeclassifiedintosimple,complexandcompoundwords（复合词）.ChapterIIIExplain1、(p32)Word-formationrules:Therulesofword-formationdefinethescopeandmethodswherebyspeakersofalanguagemaycreatenewwords2、Root,stemandbase.Analyzetheworddenationalizedintoroot,baseandstem.DenationalizedRoot：nationstem：denationalizebase：nationalizednCompounding1、Whataretherelativecriteriaofacompound?(p35-p36)①OrthographiccriterionPhonologicalcriterionSemanticcriterion川Derivation1、Whatisderivation?(p42-p43)Derivationisawordformationprocessbywhichnewwordsarecreatedbyaddingaprefix,orsuffix,orbothtoanalreadyexistingword.2、Whatisthedifferencebetweenprefixationandsuffixation?Prefixationistheadditionofaprefixtothebase.Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthebase,buttheydonotgenerallyalteritsword-class.Everyprefixhasaspecificmeaningofitsown;prefixesarethereforeclassifiedaccordingtotheirmeanings.Suffixationreferstotheadditionofasuffixtothebase.Suffixesfrequentlyaltertheword-classofthebase.Therefore,suffixesareclassifiedaccordingtotheclassofwordtheyformintonoun-formingsuffixes,verb-formingsuffixes,etc(p66)3、Howarethemajorlivingprefixesclassified?Giveafewexamplestoillustrateeachkind.(P44)Themajorlivingprefixesareclassifiedintothefollowingeightcategoriesbytheirmeaning:negativeprefixes(un-,non-,in-,dis-,a-).eg,unhappy,nonhero,injustice,disadvantage,atypical)reversativeorprivativeprefixes(un-,de-,dis-).eg,unwrap,decentralize,disuniteprejorativeprefixes(mis-,mal-,pseudo-).eg.mistrust,maltreat,pseudo-scienceprefixesofdegreeorsize(arch-,super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini-)eg,archbishop，supercurrenthyperactive,outlive,ultra-conservativeprefixesofattitude(co-,counter-,antic-,pro-)eg,cooperation,anti-nuclear,pro-student,counterpartlocativeprefixes(super-,sub-,inter-,trans-)eg.Subarctic,superacid,transcodeprefixesoftimeandorder(fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re-)foreheadreconsider,prereading,post-warnumberprefixes(uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,multi-/poly-)multi-purposemonocle,bi-media4、Howcanyouformdeverbalnouns,denominalnouns,deadjectiveverbs,anddenominaladjectivesbysuffixation?(P50)answer：1)deverbalnounsuffixes:verb-nounsuffixes,suchas-erinwriter,-eeinemployee,-ationinexploitationand—mentindevelopment.denominalnounsuffixes:noun—nounsuffixes,suchas-hoodinboyhood,-shipinscholarship,-letinbooklet,and-dominstardom.deadjectiveverbsuffixes:adjective-verbsuffixes,suchas-ifyinsimplify,-izeinmodernize,and-eninquickendenominaladjectivesuffixes:noun-adjectivesuffixes,suchas-fullinhelpful,-lessinlimitless,-yinsilkyand-ishinfoolish.5、Givethemeaningofthefollowingwordsandanalyzethestructureofeachword:(P51)answer:1)adrivermeansapersonwhodrivesalightermeansamachineusedforlighteringagardenermeansapersonwhogardenaNewYorkermeansapersonfromNewYork5）avillagermeansinhabitantofvillage6）adineris‘adiningcarriageonatrain'7）aliferis‘slang.Apersonsentencedtoimprisonmentforlife8）adressermeansAnalyse:asfor1、2、3,affixedtoaverb,thesuffixformsagentnounswiththemeaningof‘onewhoperformsanaction'asfor4、5，thisaffixmayalsobejoinedtothemeansofcities,countries,andtootherplacenames.asfor6、7、8colloquialandslangy.IVConversion1、whatisthedifferencebetweenconversion（此类转化法）andsuffixation（加后缀）?（P55介绍conversion的第一段）：Conversionisaword-formationprocesswherebyawordofacertainword-classisshiftedintoawordofanotherword-classwithouttheadditionofanaffix.Itisalsocalledzero-derivation..bottle(n.)bottle(v.),buy(v.)buy(n.),tutor(n.)tutor(v.)(例子也可以举其他的如attack)(P49介绍Suffixation的第一段)：Suffixation:It'stheformationofanewwordbyaddingasuffixoracombiningformtothebase,andusuallychangingtheword-classofthen.+-ish-boyishadj.boyn.+hood--boyhoodn.2、Inaconversionpair,howcanyoudeterminewhichofthetwoisthebaseandwhichthederivedword(派生词)?(P56中间三个例子)?Thebaseisderivationbyzerosuffix.Spy—adeverbalnounwithoutsuffix,meaningonewhospies.?ThederivedwordisderivationbysuffixWirteradeverbalnounwith"-er"suffix，meaningonewhowrites3、Illustratetheaxiom（原理）,"Theactualgrammaticalclassificationofanywordispendentuponitsuse."（P57最后一段）Noticehowtheword-classofroundvariesinaccordancewithitsuseinthefollowingsentence:.Thesecondround（n）（回合）wasexciting.Anyround（adj）（圆的）platewilldo.Somedriversround（v）（绕行）conerstoorapidly.Thesoundgoesroundandround（phrase）.（旋转）Theaboveexamplestellusaveryimportantfact:becausewordorder（词序）ismorefixedinModernEnglishthaneverbefore,thefunctionshiftswithinsentencestructuresarepossiblewithoutcausinganyconfusioninintelligibility(可懂度，可理解性).『这一段可不要』4、Whyistheconversionfromnountoverbthemostproductiveprocessofconversion?(58—59页)FirstincontemporaryEnglish,thereisatendencyof“apreponderanceofnounsaververb”.Second,thereareonlyafewverb-formingaffixesinEnglish.Theyarebe-,en-,-ify,-izeand—en.5、Whatarethemajorsemantictypesundernountoverbconversion?“toputin/onN”“togiveN,toprovideN”“todepriveofN;ortoremovetheobjectdenotedbythenounfromsomething”“To•….withN”“To{be/actas}Nwithrespectto…”verbsfromhumannounsverbsfromanimalnounsverbsfrominanimatenouns“To{make/change}•••intoN”“To{send/go}byN”mailbicycle(h)“TospendtheperiodoftimedenotedbyN”6、Whyisthepooranexampleofpartialconversion?(62页)Itisusedasnounwhenprecededbythedefinitearticle;yettheconvertednountakesononlysomeofthefeaturesofthenoun;.Itdoesnottakepluralandgenitiveinflection,norcanitbeprecededbydeterminerslikea,this,my,etc.8、Pickouttheconvertedwordsinthesentencesbelowandstate(1)theword-classoftheconvertedwordsandtheirmeanings;(2)towhatword-classthebaseofeachoftheconvertedwordsbelongs:(1)TheyaregoingtosummerinGuilin.theconvertedword:summer(v.)theword-classofit:conversionmeaning:避暑；过夏天thebaseofthewordoftheword-classbelongs:summer(n.)(2)Theyhurrahedhiswonderfulperformance.theconvertedword:hurrah(v.)theword-classofit:conversionmeaning:欢呼，叫好，为喝彩thebaseofthewordofthe弟笙辛晦:6uiue8ijuuoisjsAuoo41jossep・p」o/v\。屮(a)jsnp:pjo/v\pe^SAUOO。屮Buiujolu■Xjsassjnjiujnje屮ps;snpsqg(g)(fpe)X||is:s6uopqssep-pjo/v\。屮jopjo/v\。屮joeseq。屮:6uiue8iju

uoisjsAuoo41jossep・p」o/v\。屮

(u)X||is:pjo/v\pe^eAuoosq;・sdi|l!S；esj6sjb人ei|丄(^)(u)puno」:s6uopqssep-pjo/v\。屮jopjo/v\。屮joeseq。屮—剥'團垒：6u!ueoluuoisjsauoo41jossep・p」o/v\。屮(a)puno」:pjo/v\pe^SAUOO。屮7：n/punose屮o;」spjouisdi|jinoApuno」o]SAeqno人©(u)qejjni|:s6uopqssep-pjo/v\thebaseofthewordoftheword-classbelongs:dust(n.)(6)Itisagoodbuy.theconvertedword:buy(n.)theword-classofit:conversionmeaning:购买，买卖；所购的物品thebaseofthewordoftheword-classbelongs:buy(v.)Chapter4Initialism:Initialismisatypeofshortening,usingthefirstlettersofwordstoformapropername,atechnicalterm,oraphrase；aninitialismispronouncedletterbyletter.Acronym:Acronymsarewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofthenameofanorganizationorascientificterm,etc.Blend:Blendingisaprocessofword-formationinwhichanewwordisformedbycombiningthemeaningsandsoundsoftwowords,oneofwhichisnotinitsfullformorbothofwhicharenotintheirfullforms.Frontandbackclipping:Theprocessofclippinginvolvesthedeletionofoneormoresyllablesfromaword(usuallyanoun),whichisalsoavailableinitsfullform.Backclippingmayoccurattheendoftheword.Thisisthemostcommontypeofclipping.Frontclippingoccursatthebeginningoftheword.back-formation:Back-formationisatermusedtorefertoatypeofword-formationbywhichashorterwordiscoinedbythedeletionofasupposedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.Reduplication:Reduplicationisaminortypeofword-formationbywhichacompoundwordiscreatedbytherepetition(1)ofonewordlikego-go;(2)oftwoalmostidenticalwordswithachangeinthevowel'ssuchasping-pong;(3)oftwoalmostidenticalwordswithachangeintheinitialconsonants,asinteenyweeny.ChapterVarethesoundandmeaningofmostwordsrelated?Giveexamplestoillustrateyourpoint.(P93)MostEnglishwordsareconventional(常规的),arbitrarysymbols;consequently,thereisnointrinsic(内在的，固有的)relationbetweenthesound-symbolanditssense..house（English）maison（French）fangzi（Chinese）dom（Russian）casa（Spanish）Amoreconvincingevidenceoftheconventionalandarbitrarynatureoftheconnectionbetweensound-symbol（声音符号）andmeaningcanalsobeillustratedbyasetofhomophones（同音异义词）:write,right,andrite（仪式，礼拜式）.Theyarepronouncedthesamebutconveydifferentmeanings.dowemeanbyphoneticmotivation?（P94和PPT）Wordsmotivatedphoneticallyarecalledechoicwords（拟声词）oronomatopoeicwords,whosepronunciationsuggeststhemeaning.Theyshowacloserelationofnametosensewhereasnon-echoicwordsdon'tshowanysuchrelationship.Onomatopoeicwords（拟声词）canbedividedintoprimaryOnomatopoeia（直接拟声）andsecondaryOnomatopoeia（间接拟声）.PrimaryOnomatopoeiameanstheimitationofsoundbysound.SecondaryOnomatopoeiameansthatcertainsoundsandsound-sequencesareassociatedwithcertainsensesinanexpressiverelationship.ashortpoemorpassagethatshowstheliteraryeffectofonomatopoeicwords.（P94倒数第二行）“Theicewashere,theicewasthere,Theicewasallaround;Itcrackedandgrowled,androaredandhowled,Likenoisesinaswound!”ismeantbygrammaticalmeaning?（P96~97）Grammaticalmeaning（词法意义）consistsofword-class（词类）andinflectionalparadigm（词形变化）。（1）Itdescribestheword'slexicalmeaningandalsogiveswhatistraditionallyknownasthepartofspeechoftheword,whichmodernlinguistscalltheword-class.（2）Thesetofgrammaticalformsofawordiscalleditsparadigm.Ontheotherhandthegrammaticalmeaningisthesameinidenticalsetsofindividualformsofdifferentwords.6.Whatisthedifferentbetweengrammaticalmeaningandlexicalmeaning?（P97第3段）First,thelexicalmeaning（词汇意义）ofawordisthesameinallformsofoneandthesamewordwhilethegrammaticalmeaning（语法意义）variesfrom,oneword-formtoanother.Second,everywordhasadifferentlexicalmeaningwhereasthegrammaticalmeaningisthesameintheidenticalsetsofindividualformsofdifferentwords.7．Whyshouldwegiveprimaryimportancetoconceptual/denotativemeaning（概念/外延意义）ofwords?（P97第4段）Denotativemeaningisthecentralfactorinlinguisticcommunication.Oneofthefunctionsofwordsistodesignateordescribesomething,suchasanobject,apropertyoraprocess.Usersofalanguagecannottalkabouttheirknowledgeofaphysicalobjectoranaturalphenomenon,unlessthisknowledgeisexpressedinwordswhichhavethesamemeaningforallspeakersofagivencommunity.Thisisthedenotativemeaningofaword.Denotativemeaningisusedwhentheemphasisisontherelationshipbetweenlanguage,ontheonehand,andthethings,events,orprocesses,whichareexternaltothespeakerandhislanguage,ontheother.Thedenotativemeaningofawordisitsdefinitiongiveninadictionary.It'sthataspectoflexicalmeaningwhichmakescommunicationpossible.Givethreetofivewordswhichhaveconnotations(内涵)varyingfromonespeechcommunitytoanotherspeechcommunity,orfromeratoera.Theanswerisfrompage98mother:Thedenotativemeaningofthewordmotheris“femaleparent”,butitgenerallyconnoteslove,care,tenderness.January:ThewordJanuarydenotes“thefirstmonthoftheyear”,butitconnotescoldweather,abitingnorthwind,snow,centralheating,skatingoreventheNewYear.road:TotheEskimosinGreenland,AlaskaandNorthCanada,whotravelbysledge,roadoftenconnotessnow-coveredground,whiletothoselivinginbigcities,roadconnotessmoothandpeacefulavenueswithtreesalongside,orstreetscrowdedwithpeopleandheavytraffic.（4）UncleSam:UncleSamisatermoffavourableconnotationtomostAmericanintheUnitedStates,butinsomecountriestheoppositeistrue,andanallusiontoUncleSamwouldbeassociatedwithfeelingsofangerandhatredtowardstheAmericangovernment.12.Explainthefollowingtermswithexamples:Theanswerisfrompage101a）semanticfeatures（语义特征）Thelinguisticmeaningofawordisthesetofabstractedcharacteristicsnecessarytodistinguishthecategorywhichthewordnamesfromallothercategories.Theseabstractedcharacteristics（抽象特征）areknownassemanticfeatures.Semanticfeaturesareusedtodescribesemanticuniversals（共性，一般概念）thatmaycharacterizealllanguages.Forexample,[Male],[Female],[Adult],[Non-adult],[Human],[Bovine],[Ovine]and[Porcine]arethesemanticfeatures.b）componentialanalysis（成分分析）Alllanguages,forexample,distinguishnounsthatcategorizeabstractfromconcreteexperience;animatefrominanimatereferents;humanfromnon-human;malefromfemale.Theword‘man'hasthefollowingsemanticfeatures:〔Human〕,〔Adult〕,〔Male〕and〔Concrete〕Thiskindofanalysisisknownascomponentialanalysis.CHAPTER6I、Polysemy1、（1）、Polysemyhasbeendefinedas“Atermusedinsemanticanalysistorefertoalexicalitemwhichhasarangeofdifferentmeanings.”109页第23行（2）、Polysemyisalsoanessentialfeatureofalanguage'seconomyandefficiency.Justimaginewhataheavyburdenitwouldbeonthelearner'smemoryifitwerenotpossibleforonewordtopossessseveralsenses.Onewouldbeobligedtolearnatremendousnumberofseparatewordsforeverysubjectonemightwishtotalkabout.110页第1417行2、Radiationistheprocessinwhichtheprimaryorcentralmeaningstandsatthecenterwhilesecondarymeaningsradiatefromitineverydirectionlikeray.111页第1719行3、Concatenation,“linkingtogether”,isasemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovesgraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshifts,likethelinksofachain,untilthereisnoconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandtheprimarymeaning.113页1114行4、答案在261页n、Homonymy1、115页倒数第2-3行Perfecthomonyms:Wordsidenticalinsoundandspellingbutdifferentinmeaningarecalledperfecthomonyms.2、116页第8-9行Homophones:Wordsidenticalinsoundbutdifferentinspellingandmeaningarecalledhomophones.116页第12-13行Homographs:Wordsidenticalinspellingbutdifferentinsoundandmeaningarecalledhomographs.3、Thesourcesofhomonymsareasfollows:Phoneticconvergence:Convergingsounddevelopmengtisthemostcommoncauseofhomonymy,ortobemoreexact,oftheinfluenceofphoneticchanges,twoormorewordswhichonceweredifferentinsoundformstakeonthesamepronunciationthespokenlanguage.（出自课本117页）Semanticdivergence:Homonymycanalsobebroughtaboutthroughdivergingsensedevelopment.Whentwoormoremeaningsofthesameworddriftaparttosuchanextentthattherewillbenoobviousconnectionbetweenthem,po;ysemywillgiveplacetohomonymy.（出自课本第118页）Foreigninfluence:WordsintroducedfromabroadhaveincreasedthenumberofhomonymsinEnglish,ascanbeseenfromsomeoftheexamplesalreadygivenintheprecedingsectionon“Phoneticconvergence”and“Semanticdivergence”（出自课本第118页）Shortening:Homonymsmayalsobecreatedbytheword-formationprocessofclipping.Thissourceisofdecidedlysubsidiaryimportanceinformalwritingbuthaswidespreadinfluenceineverydayspeech.Thefollowingwordsaffordgraphicexamplesofthisprocess（课本第119页）、答案在261页、答案在261-262页、答案在262页Chapter7ISynonymCommentonthetraditionaldefinitionofsynonyms.What'syourdefinitionforsynonyms?P124Synonymsaretraditionallydefinedaswordsindifferinginsoundformbutidenticalorsimilarinmeaning.P125awordhavingthesamemeaningasotherword:asoneoftwoormorewordsofthesamelanguageandgrammaticalcategoryhavingthesameessentialorgenericmeaninganddifferingonlyinconnotation,application,oridiomaticuse:oneoftwoormorewordshavingessentiallyidenticaldefinitions.Whatdowemeanbycompletesynonyms?P125twowordsaretotallysynonymsonlyiftheyarefullyidenticalinmeaningandinterchangeableinanycontextwithouttheslightestalterationinconnotative,affectiveandstylisticmeanings.Inwhatrespectsdosynonymouswordsdiffer?P133(1)synonymsofdifferentword-classes(likejealousandjealousy)(2)wordssynonymouswithphases(liketoto-lerateandtoputupwith);(3)differentsentencepatternsexpressingroughlythesameidea.4.Whyaresynonymsusefulforliterarypurposesandforeverydayuseofthelanguage?P132Becauseofthe“sameness”ofthedenotativemeaningofsynonymsandtheirdifferenceinconnotative,stylisticand

affectivemeaning,wecanseesynonymsareusefulforavoidingrepetitionandforachievingprecisioninmeaningandvarietyinstyle.IIAntonymP136Howdoyoudefineantonyms?Theterm“antonyms”isusedfor“oppositenessofmeaning”;wordsthatareinoppositionareantonymsP136WhatismeantbyContraries,complementaries,conversives?Contraries（相对性反义词）Contrariesshowatypeofoppositenessofmeaning,illustratedbysuchpairsasold/young,big/small,long/short,etc.Theycanbeseenintermsofdegreesofthequalityinvolved.Complementaries（互补性反义词）Complementariesrefertoatypeofbinarysemanticcontrastwhichadmitsofnogradabilitybetweenthelexicalitems.Conversives（换位反义词）illustratedbysuchasbuyConversivesdisplayatypeofoppositenessofmeaning,illustratedbysuchasbuy—sell,give—receive,parentchild,above-below,etc.Thereisaninterdependenceofmeaning.P148isthedifferencebetweenroot（固定）antonymsandderivational（派生的）antonyms?Root（固定）antonymsarewordswithdifferenttoots.Derivational（派生的）antonymsarewordswiththesamerootshavingnegativeaffixes,suchashappyandunhappy.Whichistheunmarkedmemberinthefollowingantonymouspairs:long,short;high,low?Whatisthedifferencebetweenmarkedandunmarkedones?Unmarkedmember:long;high.Theunmarkedmemberisusedwhenonesimplywishestoknowthestate,qualityoffeaturesofaperson,thing,etc.Themarkedmemberalwayscarriesacertainimplicationofdistinctiveness.Theunmarkedmemberisonewhichcarriesnoparticularimplicationatall.IDHyponymyP150WhatismeantbyHyponymy?Itistherelationshipwhichobtainsbetweenspecificandgenerallexicalitems,suchthattheformerisincludedinthelatter.Thatistosay,theformerisahyponym（受支配词）ofthelatter..Acatisahyponymofanimal;fluteisthatofmusicalinstrument;chairoffurniture,andsoon.ChapterVIII（1）Lexicalcontext（词汇语境）:itreferstothelexicalitemscombinedwithagivenpolysemousword.Onewordcanbeusedinmanydifferentsenseswhenitiscombinedwithotherlexicalitems.Extra-linguisticcontext（语言之外的环境）：theactualspeechsituationinwhichawordoccurstheentireculturalbackgroundagainstwhichawordisused2）thevitalroleofcontextindeterminationofwordmeaningEIiminatingambiguities(含糊，不明确)LexicalambiguityduetopolysemyStructuralambiguityarisingfromthegrammaticalanalysisofasentenceoraphrase.Conveyingemotionalovertones(感情色彩)lndicatingreferentsandtherangeofthemeaningofaword(3)Idon'tagreewiththisword'suseisjustapartofitsmeaning.Contextisofgreatimportaneefortheunderstandingofwordmeaning,especiallyfortheunderstandingofthemeaningsofpolysemicwords.Nomatterhowmanydenotativemeaningsawordmayhave,generallytherewillbenoriskofmisunderstandingthemeaning,whenitoccursinaparticularcontext.Everywordhasameaningormeaningsofitsown,independentofthecontext.Whenwesaycontextdeterminesthewordsense,wedonotmeanthatitgivesasensetotheword,butthatitselectsoneoutofallpossiblemeaningsalreadythere.ChapterIXChangesinwordmeaning1、Explainwhychangeofword-meaningisfundamentalinalivinglanguage?ChangingofmesningcanbeillustratedwithwordsfromanypageofShakespeare.(Eg:inShakespeare'sdays,admirationmeantastonishment;seasonmeantmoderate.so“seasonyouradmirationforawhile…”meant“tomoderatehisastonishment”.)ThechangeofmeaninginEnglishwordswouldofthemselvesprovideenoughmaterialforalargevolume.Changingofmesningisacommonplace,andindeeditwouldappeartobefundamentalinmeaning…almosteverywordweusetodayhasaslightlydifferentmeaningfromtheoneithadacenturyago;andacenturyagoithadaslightlydifferentmeaningfromtheoneithadacenturybeforethat.2、howdothehistoricalandsocialcausesaccountforchangesinthemeaningofwords？Historicalcauses:1、Itoftenhappensthatlanguageismoreconservativethancivilization,materialaswellasmoral.Objects,institutions,ideasscientificconceptschangeinthecourseoftime;yetinmanycasesthenameisretainedandthushelpstoensureasenseoftraditionandcontinuity.（P169第三段）2、Therearealsomanyscientificconceptswhicehaveretainedtheiroriginalform,althoughtheirmeaningshavechangedasaresultofnewscientificdiscoveriesandincreasedknowledge.（P170第二段）3、changesofmeaningbecauseofincreasedknowledgeoftheobjectdescribedarecommoninthehistoryofscience.（P170第二段）Socialcauses：1、changeinwordmeaningresultingfromaconstanttrafficbetweencommonwordsandvarioustechnicalwordsisreferredtoassocialcauseofsemanticchange.Becauseofthisconstantchange,sometechnicalwordshavelosttheirspecializedmeaningsandhavecometobeusedinmoregeneralmeanings.（P170第三、四段）:Feedback（electr.电子扬声器的噪音）-incommonuse,itmeans“response”（信息反馈）,asin“Companiesaresensitivetothefeedbackfromcostumers.2、Anumberofsportsterms,too,havecontributedtothespeechofeverydayconversation,eg:“gettofirstbase”from“baseball”;“followthescent”from“hunting”.（P171第四段）3、thereverseprocess,inwhichapopularwordisgivenaspecialmeaninginaspecializedvocabularyisjustascommon.Aspecificenvironmentmayaddafreshandhighlytechnicalsensetoawordofgeneraluse.（P171第五段）Eg:energy:（Phys.）abilityofmatterorradiationtodowork.Product：（Math.）qualityobtainedbymultiplyingquantitiestogether.3、Howarechangesofmeaningfrequentlybroughtaboutbylinguisticcauses?Accordingtosomelinguists,linguisticcauseinchangingthemeaningofwordliesintworespects:ellipsis（省略）andanalogy.1、Ellipsisasacauseofsemanticchangeoftenoccursinhabitualcollocations,suchasadj.+n.,attributiven.+n.,inwhichthenounisoftendeletedandonlythefirstword（theattributive）isleft,butstillmeansthesenseofthewholephrase.（P172第三、四段）.privatesoldierprivate（列兵）dailynewspaperdailygoldmedalgold（asintheOlympicGames）ageneralofficerageneral2、Analogyisalsoconstantlyatworkinthechangeofwordmeaning.Newmeaningsdevelopedinonekindofwordclassarepassedontootherwordclasses..Diplomaticoriginallymeantonly“skillfulindealingwithinternationalrelations,”laterdevelopedthesenseof“tactfulinthemanagingofrelationsofanykind;artfulmanagementindealingwithothers.”Thisnewmeaninghadbeenpassedontothenounformdiplomacy.（P173第四段）P1894、Whyhavemanywordschangedtheirmeaningasaresultofbeingusedeuphemistically（委婉地）？见P173-174（173最后一行到174最上面一段）Peoplehaveatendencytousemild,agreeableIanguagewhenspeakingofanunpleasantorembarrassingfact,andtaboo（禁忌的）subjectsassexandtheexcretive（分泌的；排泄的；促进排泄的）processesofthebody.Thistendencyleadstoeuphemisms（委婉语）.Itisageneralhumantendencytoavoid

using“dirtywords”whichusuallyrefertotaboosubjectsassexandtheexcretion（排泄，排泄物；分泌，分泌物）inpolitesociety.5、Howhavethefollowingwordsbecomespecializedinmeaning?Fowl,hound,deer,meat,tostink,tostarve,pipe见p176-178(176中间部分+177的表格+178最顶端的pipe两端)Fowl:Hound：Originalmeaningmeaningafterextensionbird;afarmyardbirddogFowl:Hound：Originalmeaningmeaningafterextensionbird;afarmyardbirddog;kindsofdogusedforhuntingandracingDeer：beastitDeer：beastitsrestrictedtodenoteaparticularkindofanimalMeat：foodtheflesh（肉）ofanimalsusedasfood,tostarvetodie;tostink:inOldEnglishtodescribeadelightfulexcluding不包括Meat：foodtheflesh（肉）ofanimalsusedasfood,tostarvetodie;tostink:inOldEnglishtodescribeadelightfulexcluding不包括）fishandbirdstodieofhungeritcouldjustasappropriatelybeused可爱的，可喜的；令人愉快的)odour（气味）asadisagreeableone.andinMiddleEnglishitcametobeappliedonlytooffensive（冒犯的，无礼的）sensations（感觉）.pipe:toamusician,itisasimpletubelike（管状的）musicalinstrument,playedbyblowing,butitsuggestsotherandquitedifferentmeaningstoatobacco（烟草）smokerandtoanarchitect（建筑师）.6、Whatisextensionofmeaning?Howhavethefollowingwordsbecomeextendedinmeaning?见P178-180（178倒数第二段第一句+179中间的表格+180第二段）Plant,bird,holiday,salary,picture,thing,toarriveExtensionofmeaning,theoppositeofrestriction,meansthewideningofaword'ssenseuntilitcoversmuchmorethanwhatitoriginallyconveyed.OriginalmeaningmeaningafterextensionPlant：fromLplantar,agenericterm（通用术语）forasprout（芽；萌芽；苗芽）;thewholebotanical（植物学的）species.Bird：fromOEbird,ayoungbird;ageneraltermforfeatheredcreatureswithtwolegsandtwowings,usu.（通常）abletofly.Holiday：holyday,adayofreligiousdayoffestivityorrecreation,whensignificance;noworkisdone.Salary：asumofmoneygiventoRomanfixedpaymentmadebyemployersoldierstoenablethemtobuyatregularintervals

usu.monthlysalt;orquarterly,topersondoingotherthanmanual（手工的；体力的）ormech