戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记

1、戴炜栋简明语言学教程配套笔记Chapter 1 What is language?The origins oflanguageSome speculations of the origins of language:The divine sourceThebasichypothesis:ifinfantswereallowedtogrowupwithouthearinganylanguage,thentheywouldspontaneouslybeginusingtheoriginal god-givenlanguage.Actually, children living without ac

2、cess to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.The natural-sound sourceThebow-wowtheory:thesuggestionisthatprimitivewordscouldhavebeenimitationsofthenaturalsoundswhichearlymenandwomen heard aroundthem.The“Yo-heave-ho”theory:thesoundsproducedbyhumanswhen exerting physicalef

3、fort,especiallywhenco-operatingwithotherhumans, maybetheoriginsofspeechsounds.Onomatopoeic soundsThe oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication.The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement;

4、hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand. Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）Thisfocusesmainlyonthebiologicalbasisoftheformationanddevelopmentofhumanlanguage. PhysiologicaladaptationdevelopnamingabilityinteractionsandtransactionsPhysical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Huma

5、nlipshaveintricatemuscleinterlacing,thusmakingthemveryflexible. Thehumanmouthissmallandcontainsaveryflexibletongue.Thehumanlarynxislowered,creatingalongercavitycalledthepharynx,andmakingiteasierforthehumantochokeonthepiecesoffood,making the sound speechpossible.Thehumanbrainislateralized.Thoseanalyt

6、icfunctions(tool-usingandlanguage)arelargelyconfinedtothelefthemisphereofthebrainmosthumans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and informationThe properties oflanguageLanguage is a system of

7、arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorulesArbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word “pen” and the thing in the world which it referstotheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguagesHuman:languageishuman-specific（交际性与信息性Communicative vs.Informative:C

8、ommunicative:intentionallyusinglanguagetocommunicatesomething Informative:through/viaanumberofsignalsthatarenotintentionallyDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Languagecanbeus

9、edtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker(refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations) Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning. Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.echoofthesoundsofobject

10、soractivities:onomatopoeicwordssome compoundwords Productivity（能产性，创造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(Creativityoropen-endedness) Cultural transition（文化传递性）Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis(everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoa

11、cquirealanguage),thedetailsofanylanguage systemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt. Discreteness（可分离性）Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete. Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeani

12、ngless.The higherlevelismorphemeorword(doublearticulation)The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language.Vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but n

13、ot as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.The development of writtenlanguage pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram:whensomeofthepicturescametorepresentparticularimagesinaconsistentway,wecanbegintodescribetheproductasaformpicture-writing, orpictograms.Ideogram:thepic

14、turedevelopedasmoreabstractandusedotherthanitsentityisconsideredtobepartofasystemofidea-writing,orideogram Hieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字 Logograms（语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.“Arbitrariness”awritingsystemwhic

15、hwasword-basedhadcomeintoexistence. Cuneiform-楔形文字the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages:twodifferentdialectscanbebasedonthesamewritingDisadvantages:vastnumberofdifferentwrittenforms. Syllabic writing（音节书写法）Whenawritingsystememploysaseto

16、fsymbolswhichrepresentthepronunciationsofsyllables,itisdescribedassyllabicwriting. ThePhoenicians:thefirsthumanbeingsthatappliedthefulluseofasyllabicwritingsystem(ca1000BC) Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleTheGreeks:takingtheinherentlysyllabicsys

17、temfromthePhoeniciansviatheLatinalphabetandCyrillicalphabet(Slaviclanguages)Rebus writingRobuswritingevolvesaprocesswherebythesymbolusedforanentitycomestobeusedforthesoundofthespokenwordusedforthatentity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?The definition oflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescie

18、ntificstudyoflanguage. Process of linguisticstudy:Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;Hypotheses are formulated;Hypotheses are tested by further observations;A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.T

19、he scope oflinguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsproduced andclassified)Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(H

20、owsoundsformsystemsandfunctionconveymeaning)Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombined to formsentences)S

21、emantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstraction Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theori

22、es to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguisticsSome important distinctions inlinguisticsPrescriptivevs.DescriptiveSynchronic vs. Diachronic Speechand writingThe description of a l

23、anguage at some point in time; Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewrittenThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughLangue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity Parole:referstotherealizationoflang

24、ueinactualuseCompetence and performanceProposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological) Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Chapter 3 Phonetics and phonologyThe definition ofphoneticsPhonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesound

25、sthatoccurintheworldslanguages. Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair. Auditory(orperceptual)phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechForensic phonetics: has an application in legal

26、cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.Organs ofspeechVoiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingav

27、ibration effect.AlltheEnglishvowelsaretypicallyvoiced(voicing). The importantcavities:The pharyngeal The oralcavityThe nasal cavityLips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cordsOrthographic representation of s

28、peechsoundsBroad and narrow transcriptionsIPA (International PhoneticAlphabet/Association)Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsNarrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithdiacriticsE.g.:lli:f- a clear l (no diacritic)lbild-a dark l()lhelW-a dental l ( )ppit-an aspirated ph(h)pspit-anunas

29、piratedp(nodiacritic) n5bQtnasyllabicnasaln(7)Classification of EnglishconsonantsIn terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created)Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptlyp/b, t/d, k/gFricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forc

30、ed through a narrow passage in the monthf/v, s/z, W/T, F/V, h (approximant)Affricates: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricativestF/dVLiquids:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueand theroofofmouthla lateral sound; r ret

31、roflexGlides: w, j (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + h approximantsNasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through itm, , By place of articulation (the place where obstruction is created)bilabials: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructionsp

32、/b, w(velar)labiodentals: the lower lip and the upper teethf/vdentals: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teethW/Talveolars: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridget/d, s/z, n, l, ralveo-palatals (palato-alveolars): tongue and the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridgeF/

33、V, t/dpalatal: tongue in the middle of the palatejvelars: the back of the tongue against the velumk, g, N wglottals: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynxhClassification of EnglishvowelsFronti:CentralBackClose iu:uSemi-closeeE:Semi-openEC:OpenABQRB:The highest position of th

34、e tongue: front, central, back;The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open;Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips):Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexceptAllthebackvowels,exceptA:areroundedvowelsThe length of the sound: long vowels & short vowelsLarynx (tense) or (lax)Mono

35、phthongs, diphthongsThe definition of phonologyCardinal vowelsPhoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,phoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlan

36、guages;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsina languageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone, phoneme, andallophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit phonemePhoneme:themean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedinslashAllophone:asetofphones,allo

37、fwhichareversionsofonephonemePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimalpairPhonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyreincontrast.E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoall

38、ophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausecannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings, thetwosoundsaresaidtof

39、ormaminimalpair.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenallthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.Some rules inphonologysequential rulesSyllableOnsetrimeNucleuscodaConsonantvowelconsonant(s)Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset:No1: /s/

40、voiceless stops: /p/, /t/,/k/ approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,No2:The affricates tF/dV and the sibilants s, z, F, V are not to be followed by another sibilants.assimilation rulesCo-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation. Assimilation & elisioneffec

41、tsAssimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.deletion rule-ElisionDefinition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in iso

42、lationE.g. delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonantI Suprasegmental featuresStressWord stress & sentence stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first elementToneDefinition:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalPitchvariationsca

43、ndistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourLevel,rise,fall-rise,fallIntonationWhenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation. English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtonesThe falling tone, the risin

44、g tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall toneChapter 4 MorphologyThe definition ofmorphologyMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareInflectionalmorphologyDerivational morphology (lexical morphology) Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulcomponentso

45、f(Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction)Free morphemes & boundmorphemesFree morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words Lexical morphemes n.a.v & functional morphemes n.Boundmorphemes:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherDerivationalmorphemesaffix(suffix,infix,pr

46、efix)+root Inflectional morphemes 88typesofinflectionalmorphemesinNoun+-,possessive;pluralVerb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en3rdpersonpresentsingular;presentparticiple;pasttense,pastparticiple Adj+-er,-estcomparative;superlativeDerivational vs.inflectionalInflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofaIn

47、flectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectionalMorphologicalRulesN. +ly a.; A. +ly adv.; guard overgeneralizationMorphs andallomorphsMorphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs: a set of morphs, all of

48、which are versions of one morpheme, we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme.Word-formationprocessCoinagethe invention of totally new termsBorrowingthe taking over of words form other languagesLoan-translation(Claque)adirecttranslationoftheelementsofawordintotheborrowinglanguage Standalonetob

49、etheoppositeofword-formationCompounding a joining of two separate words to produce a single formFeatures of compoundsa)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,withorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords. b)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeec

50、hofthesecondelement. c)Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofitscomponents. d)Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,While the second element receives secondary stress.Blending taking over the beginning of one word and joini

51、ng it to the end of other wordClipping a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter formBack formation a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing wordHypocorismsclipping or +ieConversion category change, functional shiftAcronyms new words are formed fro

52、m the initial letters of a set of other wordsDerivation the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or wordsAbbreviationashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteAnalogyChapter 5 GrammarTypes ofgrammarThe study of grammar, or the study of the structure of ex

53、pressions in a language, has a very long tradition. Mental grammar: a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. PsychologistLinguistic etiquette: the identification of the proper or best structures

54、 to be used in a language. SociologistThestudyandanalysisofthestructuresfoundinalanguage,withtheaimofestablishingadescriptionofthegrammarofEnglish,asdistinctfromthegrammarofRussiaorFrench.LinguistThe parts ofspeechNouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions the grammatica

55、l categories of words in sentencesTraditional grammar (Categories and analysis) Othercategories:number,person,tense,voiceandAgreement:English languagenatural Grammatical genderFrenchTypes of grammar concerninganalysisThe prescriptive approach: The view of grammar as a set of rules for the proper use

56、 of a languageThedescriptiveapproach:analystscollectsamplesofthelanguagetheyareinterestedinandattempttodescribetheregularstructuresoflanguageatitisused,notaccordingtosomeviewofhowitshouldbeused.Structural and immediate constituent analysis (ICAnalysis)Structural analysis: to investigate the distinct

57、ion of forms (e.g. morphemes) in a languageIC Analysis: how small constituents (Components) in sentences go together to form larger constituentsLabeled and bracketedsentencesHierarchical organization of the constituents in a sentenceLabel each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art. N. NPCha

58、pter 6 SyntaxThe definition ofsyntaxA subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of languageThe basic components of asentenceSentenceSubjectPredicateReferringexpressioncomprisesfiniteverboraverbphraseandsayssomethingaboutthesubjectTypes ofsentencesSimple sentence: consists of a sing

59、le clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate(Compound)sentence:containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunctions,suchas“andComplexsentence:containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheEmbedded clause matrixclause s

60、ubordinator f unctions as a grammatical unit may be completeThe linear and hierarchical structures ofsentencesWhenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence,whichsuggeststhestructure of a sentence islinear.But the superficial arrangement of words in a