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1、 TowardsaTheoryofCulturalInfluenceontheDevelopmentofAccountingSystemsInternationallyS.J.GRAYAbstract:Researchhasshownthataccountingfollowsdifferentpatternsindifferentpartsoftheworld.Therehavebeenclaimsthatnationalsystemsaredeterminedbyenvironmentalfactors.Inthiscontext,culturalfactorshavenotbeenfull
2、yconsidered.Thispaperproposesfourhypothesesontherelationshipbetweenidentifiedculturalcharacteristicsandthedevelopmentofaccountingsystems,theregulationoftheaccountingprofessionandattitudestowardsfinancialmanagementanddisclosure.Thehypothesesarenotoperationalized,andempiricaltestshavenotbeencarriedout
3、.Theyareproposedhereasafirststepinthedevelopmentofatheoryofculturalinfluenceonthedevelopmentofaccountingsystems.Keywords:Accountingpolicies;Culture;Financialreporting.IntroductionThispaperexplorestheextenttowhichinternationaldifferencesinaccounting,withspecificreferencetocorporatefinancialreportings
4、ystems,maybeexplainedandpredictedbydifferencesinculturalfactors.Whilepriorresearchhasshownthattherearedifferentpatternsofaccountinginternationallyandthatthedevelopmentofnationalsystemstendstobeafunctionofenvironmentalfactors,itisamatterofsomecontroversyastotheidentificationofthepatternsandinfluentia
5、lfactorsinvolved.Inthiscontextthesignificanceofculturedoesnotappeartohavebeenfullyappreciatedandthusthepurposeofthispaperistoproposeaframeworkwhichlinksculturewiththedevelopmentofaccountingsystemsinternationally.Thefirstsectionofthepaperreviewspriorresearchoninternationalclassificationandtheinfluenc
6、eofenvironmentalfactors.Thesecondsectionaddressesthesignificanceoftheculturaldimensionanditsapplicationtoaccounting.Thethirdsectionproposesaframeworkanddevelopshypotheseslinkingculturewiththedevelopmentofaccountingattitudesandsystemsinternationally,basedonthecross-culturalworkofHofstede.Inthefourths
7、ectionsomecultureareaclassificationsareproposed.Theyhavebeendevelopedonajudgmentalbasis,inthecontextofcombinationsofaccountingattitudesorvalueswhichdetermine(a)theauthorityforandenforcementofaccountingsystems,and(b)themeasurementanddisclosurecharacteristicsofaccountingsystems.INTERNATIONALCLASSIFICA
8、TIONANDENVIRONMENTALFACTORSComparativeaccountingresearchhasprovidedanenhancedawarenessoftheinfluenceofenvironmentalfactorsonaccountingdevelopment.Thisresearchhascontributedtoagrowingrealizationthatfundamentallydifferentaccountingpatternsexistasaresultofenvironmentaldifferencesandthatinternationalcla
9、ssificationdifferencesmayhavesignificantimplicationsforinternationalharmonizationandthepromotionofeconomicintegration.Inthisregardithasalsobeensuggestedthattheidentificationofpatternsmaybeusefulinpermittingabetterunderstandingofthepotentialforchange,givenanychangeinenvironmentalfactors;andthatpolicy
10、-makersmaybeinabetterpositiontopredictproblemsthatacountrymaybelikelytofaceandidentifysolutionsthatmaybefeasible,giventheexperienceofcountrieswithsimilardevelopmentpatterns.Researcheffortsinthisareahavetendedtoapproachtheinternationalclassificationofaccountingsystemsfromtwomajordirections.First,ther
11、eisthedeductiveapproachwherebyrelevantenvironmentalfactorsareidentifiedand,bylinkingthesetonationalaccountingpractices,internationalclassificationsordevelopmentpatternsareproposed.Second,thereistheinductiveapproachwherebyaccountingpracticesareanalysed,developmentpatternsidentified,andexplanationspro
12、posedwithreferencetoavarietyofeconomic,social,political,andculturalfactors.Asregardsthedeductiveapproachtoaccountingclassification,theenvironmentalanalysisbyMuellerprovidesausefulstartingpoint.Muelleridentifiedfourdistinctapproachestoaccountingdevelopmentinwesternnationswithmarketorientatedeconomics
13、ystems.Thesewere:themacroeconomicpatternwherebusinessaccountinginterrelatescloselywithnationaleconomicpolicies;themicroeconomicpattern-whereaccountingisviewedasabranchofbusinesseconomics;theindependentdisciplineapproachwhereaccountingisviewedasaservicefunctionandderivedfrombusinesspractice;theunifor
14、maccountingapproachwhereaccountingisviewedasanefficientmeansofadministrationandcontrol.Whilealloftheseapproacheswereperceivedtobecloselylinkedtoeconomicorbusinessfactors,awidersetofinfluences,forexample,legalsystem,politicalsystem,socialclimatewererecognizedasbeingrelevant,thoughwithoutprecisespecif
15、ication,toaccountingdevelopment.Culturalfactorsreceivednoexplicitrecognition,however,andwerepresumablysubsumedinthesetofenvironmentalfactorsidentified.MuellersanalysiswasadaptedandextendedbyNobeswhobasedhisclassificationonanevolutionaryapproachtotheidentificationofmeasurementpracticesindevelopedWest
16、ernnations.Nobesadoptedahierarchicalschemeofclassificationinanendeavourtoprovidemoresubtletyanddiscriminationtotheassessmentofcountrydifferences.However,similarlytoMueller,noexplicitmentionwasmadeofculturalfactors.Abasicdistinctionbetweenmicroeconomicandmacroeconomicsystemswasmadetogetherwithadisagg
17、regationbetweenbusinesseconomicsandbusinesspracticeorientationsunderamicro-basedclassification.Thisclassificationsystemwasthentestedbymeansofajudgmentalanalysisofnationalfinancialreportingsystemsinfourteencountries.Bywayofcontrast,theinductiveapproachtoidentifyingaccountingpatternsbeginswithananalys
18、isofaccountingpractices.PerhapsthemostimportantcontributionofthistypewasbyNairandFrank,whocarriedoutastatisticalanalysisofaccountingpracticesinforty-fourcountries.Anempiricaldistinctionwasmadebetweenmeasurementanddisclosurepracticesasthesewereseentohavedifferentpatternsofdevelopment.Theempiricalresu
19、lts,usingfactoranalysisappliedtoindividualpractices,showedthatinrespectofthePriceWaterhousedataitwaspossibletoidentifyfivegroupingsofcountries,withChileasasingle-countrygroup,intermsofmeasurementpractices.Thenumberofgroupingsincreasedtosevenwhendisclosurepracticeswereconsidered.Thedisclosuregrouping
20、s,ontheotherhand,couldnotbedescribedplausiblyonasimilarspheres-of-influenceclassificationonaccountoftheirapparentdiversity.Subsequenttotheidentificationofgroupings,NairandFrankattemptedtoassesstherelationshipsofthesegroupingswithanumberofexplanatoryvariables.Whilerelationshipswereestablishedinrespec
21、tofsomeofthevariableswhichincludedlanguage(asaproxyforculture),variousaspectsofeconomicstructureandtradingties,itwasclearthatthereweredifferencesasbetweenthemeasurementanddisclosuregroupings.However,thehypothesesthat(a)culturalandeconomicvariablesmightbemorecloselyassociatedwithdisclosurepractices,a
22、nd(b)tradingvariablesmightbemorecloselyassociatedwithmeasurementpracticeswerenotsupported.Itiscurioustonoteherethatthelanguagevariable,asaproxyforculture,wasperceivedtobeameansofcapturingsimilaritiesinlegalsystemswhichwerethoughttobeparticularlyimportantinthedeterminationofdisclosurepatterns.Thisisq
23、uestionableinitself,butinanyeventnojustificationwasgivenfortheuseoflanguageasaproxyforculture.Fromthisbriefreviewofsomeofthemajorstudiesininternationalclassificationitseemsclearthattodateonlyverybroadcountrygroupingsoraccountingpatternshavebeenidentified.Atthesametime,onlyverygeneralrelationshipsbet
24、weenenvironmentalfactorsandaccountingpatternshavebeenestablished.Thesignificanceofcultureinthecontextofpriorclassificationresearchisfarfromclear.Itmaybethatculturalinfluenceshavebeengenerallysubsumedinthepredominantconcernwitheconomicfactorsbutthishasnotbeenmadeexplicit.Accordingly,theinfluenceofcul
25、tureonaccountingwouldseemtohavebeenlargelyneglectedinthedevelopmentofideasaboutinternationalclassifications.THECULTURALDIMENSIONThesignificanceofcultureininfluencingandexplainingbehaviourinsocialsystemshasbeenrecognizedandexploredinawiderangeofliteraturesbutespeciallytheanthropology,sociologyandpsyc
26、hologyliteratures.Culturehasbeendefinedasthecollectiveprogrammingofthemindwhichdistinguishesthemembersofonehumangroupfromanother.Thewordcultureisreservedforsocietiesasawhole,ornations,whereassubcultureisusedfortheievelofanorganization,professionorfamily.Whilethedegreeofculturalintegrationvariesbetwe
27、ensocieties,mostsubcultureswithinasocietysharecommoncharacteristicswithothersubcultures.Anessentialfeatureofsocialsystemsisperceivedtobetheinclusionofasystemofsocietalnorms,consistingofthevaluesystemssharedbymajorgroupswithinanation.Valueshavebeendefinedasabroadtendencytoprefercertainstatesofaffairs
28、overothers.Valuesatthecollectivelevel,asopposedtotheindividuallevel,representculture;thusculturedescribesasystemofsocietalorcollectivelyheldvalues.Intheaccountingliterature,however,theimportanceofcultureanditshistoricalrootsisonlyjustbeginningtoberecognized.Whiletherehasbeenalackofattentiontothisdim
29、ensionintheinternationalclassificationliterature,HarrisonandMcKinnonhaverecentlyproposedamethodologicalframeworkincorporatingcultureforanalysingchangesincorporatefinancialreportingregulationatthenationspecificlevel.Theuseofthisframeworktoassesstheimpactofcultureontheformandfunctioningofaccountingisd
30、emonstratedwithreferencetothesysteminJapan.Cultureisconsideredanessentialelementintheframeworkforunderstandinghowsocialsystemschangebecausecultureinfluences:(1)thenormsandvaluesofsuchsystems;(2)thebehaviourofgroupsintheirinteractionswithinandacrosssystems.ComplementingHarrisonandMcKinnonsapproachist
31、hesuggestionherethatamethodologicalframeworkincorporatingculturemaybeusedtoexplainandpredictinternationaldifferencesinaccountingsystemsandpatternsofaccountingdevelopmentinternationally.Morespecifically,itisproposedheretoexploretheextenttowhichculturaldifferencesidentifiedbyHofstedescross-culturalres
32、earchmayexplaininternationaldifferencesinaccountingsystems.CULTURE,SOCIETALVALUESANDTHEACCOUNTINGSUBCULTUREHofstedesresearchwasaimedatdetectingthestructuralelementsofcultureandparticularlythosewhichmoststronglyaffectknownbehaviourinworksituationsinorganizationsandinstitutions.Inwhatisprobablyoneofth
33、emostextensivecross-culturalsurveyseverconducted,psychologistscollecteddataaboutvaluesfromtheemployeesofamultinationalcorporationlocatedinmorethanfiftycountries.Subsequentstatisticalanalysisandreasoningrevealedfourunderlyingsocietalvaluedimensionsalongwhichcountriescouldbepositioned.Thesedimensions,
34、withsubstantialsupportfrompriorworkinthefield,werelabelledIndividualism,PowerDistance,UncertaintyAvoidance,andMasculinity.Suchdimensions,whichareexaminedfurtherbelow,wereperceivedtorepresentelementsofacommonstructureinculturalsystems.Figure1showsthecultureareasidentifiedandwithineachgroupanyidentifi
35、ablesub-groups.FIGURECULTUREAREAS(HOFSTEDE)MoredevelopedLessdevelopedMoredevelopedLatinLatinAsianBelgiumColombiaJapanFranceMexicoArgentinaVenezuelaBrazilSpainCostaRicaChileItaiyGuatemalaPanamaAfricanPeruEastAfricaPortugalWestAfricaSalvadorUruguayLessDevelopedNearEasternAsianIndonesiaArabcountriesPak
36、istanGreeceTaiwanIranThailandTurkeyAsian-ColonialYugoslaviaHongKongIndiaSingaporeMalaysiaPhilippinesGermanicAngloNordicAustriaAustraliaDenmarkIsraelCanadaFinlandIrelandNetherlandsGermanyNewZealandNorwaySwitzerlandU.K.SwedenU.S.A.SouthAfricaThepointofreviewingHofstedesresearchhereisthatifsocietalvalu
37、eorientationsarerelatedtothedevelopmentofaccountingsystemsatthesubculturallevel,giventhatsuchvaluespermeateanationssocialsystem,thenitmaybehypothesizedthatthereshouldbeaclosematchbetweencultureareasandpatternsofaccountingsystemsinternationally.FIGURE2CULTURE,SOCIETALVALUESANDTHEACCOUNTINGSUB-CULTURE
38、Inordertoexplorefurthertherelationshipbetweencultureandaccountingsystemsinaninternationalcontextitisnecessarytoidentifythemechanismbywhichvaluesatthesocietallevelarelinkedtovaluesattheaccountingsub-culturallevelasitistheselattervalueswhicharelikelytoinfluencedirectlythedevelopmentofaccountingsystems
39、inpractice.ThisisanadaptationandextensionofthemodelrelatingtotheformationandstabilizingofsocietalculturepatternsproposedbyHofstede.Inthismodel,societalvaluesaredeterminedbyecologicalinfluencesmodifiedbyexternalfactorssuchasinternationaltradeandinvestment,conquest,andtheforcesofnature.Inturn,societal
40、valueshaveinstitutionalconsequencesintheformofthelegalsystem,politicalsystem,natureofcapitalmarkets,patternofcorporateownershipandsoon.Theseinstitutionsreinforcebothecologicalinfluencesandsocietalvalues.Anextensionofthismodelisproposedherewherebysocietalvaluesareexpressedattheleveloftheaccountingsub
41、culture.Accordingly,thevaluesystemsorattitudesofaccountantsmaybeexpectedtoberelatedtoandderivedfromsocietalvalueswithspecialreferencetowork-relatedvalues.Accountingvalueswill,inturn,impactonaccountingsystems.IfHofstedehascorrectlyidentifiedIndividualism,PowerDistance,UncertaintyAvoidance,andMasculin
42、ityassignificantculturalvaluedimensionsthenitshouldbepossibletoestablishtheirrelationshiptoaccountingvalues.Ifsucharelationshipexiststhenalinkbetweensocietalvaluesandaccountingsystemscanbeestablishedandtheinfluenceofcultureassessed.Beforeanattemptcanbemadetoidentifysignificantaccountingvalueswhichma
43、yberelatedtosocietalvaluesitisimportanttounderstandthemeaningofthefourvaluedimensionsidentifiedbyHofstedeandreferredtoearlier.Havingidentifiedsocietalvaluesisitpossiblethentoidentifysignificantlyrelatedaccountingvaluesattheleveloftheaccountingsubculture?Thefollowingaccountingvalues,derivedfromarevie
44、wofaccountingliteratureandpractice,areofferedforconsideration:ProfessionalismversusStatutoryControlapreferencefortheexerciseofindividualprofessionaljudgmentandthemaintenanceofprofessionalself-regulationasopposedtocompliancewithprescriptivelegalrequirementsandstatutorycontrol.UniformityversusFlexibil
45、ityapreferencefortheenforcementofuniformaccountingpracticesbetweencompaniesandfortheconsistentuseofsuchpracticesovertimeasopposedtoflexibilityinaccordancewiththeperceivedcircumstancesofindividualcompanies.ConservatismversusOptimismapreferenceforacautiousapproachtomeasurementsoastocopewiththeuncertai
46、ntyoffutureeventsasopposedtoamoreoptimistic,laissez-faire,risk-takingapproach.SecrecyversusTransparencyapreferenceforconfidentialityandtherestrictionofdisclosureofinformationaboutthebusinessonlytothosewhoarecloselyinvolvedwithitsmanagementandfinancingasopposedtoamoretransparent,openandpubliclyaccoun
47、tableapproach.Itshouldbeemphasizedthatthereisnosuggestionthatthesevaluesarenecessarilytheonlyvaluesinvolved.Whattheydorepresent,however,isanattempttoidentifyvaluedimensionswhichappeartobewidelyrecognized.Whatargumentsaretheretosupporttheseaccountingvaluedimensions?Howdotheyrelatetosocietalvalues?How
48、aretheylikelytoimpactonthedevelopmentofnationalaccountingsystems?ProfessionalismversusStatutoryControlThisisproposedasasignificantaccountingvaluedimensionbecauseaccountantsareperceivedtoadoptindependentattitudesandtoexercisetheirindividualprofessionaljudgmentstoagreaterorlesserextenteverywhereinthew
49、orld.AmajorcontroversyinmanyWesterncountries,forexample,surroundstheissueoftheextenttowhichtheaccountingprofessionshouldbesubjecttopublicregulation/statutorycontrolorbepermittedtoretaincontroloveraccountingstandardsasamatterforprivateself-regulation.Thedevelopmentofprofessionalassociationshasalonghi
50、storybuttheyaremuchmorefirmlyestablishedincountriessuchastheU.S.A.andtheU.K.thaninsomeoftheContinentalEuropeancountriesandinmanyofthelessdevelopedcountries.IntheU.K.,forexample,theconceptofpresentingatrueandfairviewofacompanysfinancialpositionandresultsdependsheavilyonthejudgmentoftheaccountantasani
51、ndependentprofessional.Thisissototheextentthataccountinginformationdisclosuresadditionalto,andsometimescontraryto,whatisspecificallyrequiredbylawmaybenecessary.ThismaybecontrastedwiththetraditionalpositioninFranceandGermanywheretheprofessionalaccountantsrolehasbeenconcernedprimarilywiththeimplementa
52、tionofrelativelyprescriptiveanddetailedlegalrequirements.WiththeimplementationoftheEECdirectivesthissituationisnowchangingtotheextentthatthereissomemovement,ifnotconvergence,alongtheprofessionalismspectrum.TowhatextentthencanprofessionalismbelinkedtothesocietalvaluesofIndividualism,PowerDistance,Unc
53、ertaintyAvoidance,andMasculinity?Itisarguedherethatprofessionalismcanbelinkedmostcloselywiththeindividualismanduncertainty-avoidancedimensions.Apreferenceforindependentprofessionaljudgmentisconsistentwithapreferenceforalooselyknitsocialframeworkwherethereismoreemphasisonindependence,abeliefinindivid
54、ualdecisionsandrespectforindividualendeavour.Thisisalsoconsistentwithweakuncertaintyavoidancewherepracticeisallimportant,wherethereisabeliefinfairplayandasfewrulesaspossible,andwhereavarietyofprofessionaljudgmentswilltendtobemoreeasilytolerated.Therewouldalsoseemtobealink,iflessstrong,betweenprofess
55、ionalismandpowerdistanceinthatprofessionalismismorelikelytobeacceptedinasmallpower-distancesocietywherethereismoreconcernforequalrights,wherepeopleatvariouspowerlevelsfeellessthreatenedandmorepreparedtotrustpeople,andwherethereisabeliefintheneedtojustifytheimpositionoflawsandcodes.Asregardsmasculini
56、ty,however,theredoesnotappeartobeanysignificantlinkwithprofessionalism.Followingfromthisanalysisitmaybehypothesizedthat:Thehigheracountryranksintermsofindividualismandtheloweritranksintermsofuncertaintyavoidanceandpowerdistancethenthemorelikelyitistorankhighlyintermsofprofessionalism.ACCOUNTINGVALUE
57、SANDCULTUREAREACLASSIFICATIONSHavingformulatedhypothesesrelatingsocietalvaluestoaccountingvaluesinternationally,itisevidentthatthemostimportantsocietalvaluesattheleveloftheaccountingsubculturewouldseemtobeuncertaintyavoidanceandindividualism.Whilepowerdistanceandmasculinityarealsosignificanttosomeex
58、tent,masculinityappearstobeofsomewhatlesserimportanceinthesystemofaccountingvalues.Itisnowproposedtohypothesizecultureareaclassificationsinthecontextofcombinationsofaccountingvalues.Forthispurposeitisarguedherethatausefuldistinctioncanbemadebetweentheauthorityforaccountingsystems,thatis,theextenttow
59、hichtheyaredeterminedandenforcedhystatutorycontrolorprofessionameansontheonehand,andthemeasurementanddisclosurecharacteristicsofaccountingsystemsontheother.Accountingvaluesmostrelevanttotheprofessionalorstatutoryauthorityforaccountingsystemsandtheirenforcementwouldseemtobetheprofessionalismandunifor
60、mitydimensionsinthattheyeireconcernedwithregulationandtheextentofenforcementorconformity.Accordingly,thesecanbecombinedandtheclassificationofcultureareashypothesizedonajudgmentalbasis.Inmakingthesejudgmentsreferencehasbeenmadetotherelevantcorrelationsbetweenvaluedimensionsandtheresultantclustersofco
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