韦晓亮Argu笔记（注释）

1、 PAGE14 / NUMPAGES14 Argument完整版注：要把242个题目每一个题目都分析一遍以免耽误考场时间（一）Argument的写作特点和整体结构给出一篇短文，30分钟内指出文章中主要的逻辑错误，并提出建议。外推类错误过去比较好的未必会延续到将来充分必要条件错误还有其他原因错误类比让步式攻击Argument 193：Survey 调查类错误；因果关系错误；错误类比第一段：开头段主要是归纳论点，说明论点有问题，存在逻辑漏洞，准备发起进攻。第二段和第三段甚至第四段：正文段分类别去攻击各个逻辑错误第五段：结尾段作者的结论似乎是合理的，但是通过论证，不是这样的。因此作者在作出决定之前，

2、应该还要考虑其他情况。（二）如何写开头段C-E-F结构conclusion结论 evidence证据 flaw缺陷模板 1 混合态度表达Merely based on (rely on/ depend on)unfounded assumption and dubious(suspicious)evidence,the statement(the article, the author, the arguer)draws a conclusion that.C(条理化最好)To substantiate(support/strengthen)the conclusion,the arguer

3、points out evidence that .a1. In addition,he indicates that .a2. Furthermore, he cites/ quotes the result of a recent survey in support of his remendation.(Furthermore, the author cites a3 as a typical example in support of his remendation.)E(让步逻辑)At first sight/glance, this argument appears/seems t

4、o be somewhat convincing, but further reflection (考虑) reveals that it ignores/omits some substantial concerns that should be addressed to substantiate the argument. In my point of view,this argument suffers from (N) logical flaws.避免主观陈述模板 2 In this argument, the author concludes that The author cite

5、s about 123In addition, he infers thatFurthermore, the arguer cites sb. sth. as a typical example. In support of However, this ,in favor of (先颠覆宏观连接在弱化联系) Making this argument sound and perfectC和E不要照抄，把原文进行概述、提炼等改写C最重要argument和issue不一样，argument要规X、规矩，而issue则要多样。找准c,概述e（三）如何写正文段一、合理安排逻辑错误的攻击顺序 a.按照逻辑

6、错误出现的顺序进行顺序式攻击；(低级 ) b.按照逻辑错误的主次进行攻击；如果文章的主要错误出现在调查，则先攻击之。 c.按照逻辑体系进行让步式攻击（推荐这种，最合理）与出现顺序无关不是每个题目都可以这样的按错误的演绎关系，如：A = B = C，则先攻击A，A不成立；即便A成立，攻击B，B不成立；假设即使A和B都成立，攻击C，C不成立。何况A、B都不成立。Argument 2：外推类错误 seven years ago;因果类错误 since then;错误类比注意：逐步让步二、各段首句引言局1 这个文章存在的第一个关键性的问题是the major problem with the argu

7、ment is that2 另外一个弱化了原文逻辑的点在于another problem that weaken a logic of this argument is3 Before I e to my conclusion, it is necessary to point out the flaw involved in this argument. (暗示读者是最后一个了，启下)【具体没有记，回头再补充】3个比较好（四）如何写结尾段(虚拟语气) 2006ETS：结尾和开头要有区别C-S结构 C：再次概括原文没有自圆其说的conclusion。S：suggestion重要模板：To su

8、m up/ all in all,this arguer fails to substantiate the claim that_,because the evidences cited in the analysis do not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains.To make the argument more convincing, the arguer would have to provide more information with regard to_(点到为止). Additionally, he would

9、 have to demonstrate that_. Therefore, if the argument had included the given factors discussed above,it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable. (这里用虚拟语气表示遗憾) （五）各个逻辑错误的攻击方法和语言一、调查类逻辑错误（survey/study）题库中重中之重很多标志词见手写版笔记。攻击：样本的质量和数量；采样过程是否科学合理(1) Procedure调查过程错误核心A.Selective sample (片面性

10、样本)攻击点：样本选择不随机、不具代表性攻击技巧：调查对象前一系列限定性定语或修饰词B.Quantity of the sample攻击点：样本数量少，即便有典型性也不能说明问题模板：Unless the surveyors sampled a sufficient number of _样本集_and did so randomly across the entirespectrum, the survey results are not reliable to gauge/weigh/assess/value_调查目标_ generally/universally (评估什么的广泛性、一般

11、性).The number of respondents/samples,in itself, does not ensure/guarantee/warrant representativeness(代表性).For example, if the sample included only_(某一方面),then the results would no doubt suggest(此处不表示建议，因此不用虚拟语气，表示暗示)_.Or if grosses are considerable (可观的),_(1500,1200) would account for only a little

12、percentage,which would render/lead to (导致) the results of the survey meaningless.正反逻辑：正逻辑：顺着原文的条件，得出原文的结论。例如：如果这个样本只包含了参加这个课程有效果的那部分学生，毫无疑问会得到这个课程有效的结果。反逻辑：与原文相反的条件，得到相反的结论。例如：如果这个样本只包含了参加这个课程无效的那部分学生，很有可能结果就暗示了该课程的无效性。C.回应者是否说了真话是个小错误，可以不攻击，即便要攻击，用一句话合并在QQ里面就可以。一般由于是否匿名、某、利益。We are not informed whe

13、ther the survey response anonymous and confidential, if they were not _.Argument 115D暗含性假设（我看还是不要攻击了）【3/113】Argument 115如：是满意还是非常不满意？也是一句话概括：We are not informed whether the survey required therespondents to choosetheir proneness between alternative, if indeed, then the result might have distort the

14、genuine想法 of the respondent who might actually prefer A to B or C.(2)Result of the survey调查结果类错误（一句话）A. Do the statistics make any meaningfulness 数据是否有意义数据无意义指的是数据和结论不相关。The statistic should be relating to the conclusion.Argument 14B.Are the statistics misleadingly vague数据是否含糊标志词：all， many， a number

15、 of， most 绝对化数量percentage proportion 相对比值注：绝对和相对缺一即要攻击，题库中没有任何一个题两个都有，所以肯定缺一。1）攻击“无相对比值”The argument tells us that many(a number of)_.However, the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of_, so this evidence is far too vague to be meaningful.2)攻击“无绝对数值”The author fails to provide information regar

16、ding the absolute number of _.Argument 102C.Respondents（这个词只要出现肯定回应者错误）回应者错误（小错误）Argument 11The respondents must be statistically significant in number and representative of the overall_.(3)Who conducted the survey调查者错误谁做了这个调查标志词：主观代词cross-bencher 中立机构Nnonaligned中立的AThe surveyor must be cross-benche

17、r/nonaligned.Argument 179(4)When was the survey conducted?调查时间错误在时间轴上，做调查的时间和通过调查得出结论的时间在时间上要足够的近。A threshold problem is that the editorial neglects to indicate how recently the survey was actually conducted.When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be

18、 close enough in time to the generalization(得出结论这个概括性行为). All we know in the editorial is that the survey was recently published. The less recent the survey itself is, the less reliable the results are to indicate _current interest levels.Argument 36 (难题)调查类错误的写作词汇：名词：survey, questionnaire, statisti

19、cal study (统计研究), sample, specimen (样本的最文本化表述), sampling (采样的动作), quantity, quality, statistic (统计量), poll, absolute value, valid, validity, statistical validity, range (X围), spectrum, scope动词：select, choose, sample, investigate, examine, indicate, prise ( vt. 直接加成分，用于表示样本有什么构成)形容词vs.副词：valid, authe

20、ntic (可信的), random, quantitative, statistical, typical, representative, characteristic, far-ranging (广泛的), prehensive (综合的), expansive (广泛的，易扩X的), generally, universally二、充分必要条件类错误（Sufficient Evidence and Necessary Condition）（1）Sufficient Evidence充分条件标志词：once攻击点：A不充分导致B，B的发生还依赖于其他原因（C,D,E.）；Argument

21、 170模板：a.The argument assumes too hastily that _ will necessarily result in the behavior that the argument predicts. Perhaps, _ . Moreover, _.b.The fact that A is not sufficient for the prediction that B.（2）Necessary Condition 必要条件作者在原文中一般会指出：A的发生是唯一导致B发生的必要条件；攻击：没A的发生，如果有C D E. 任何一个到两个因素的发生也可以导致B的发

22、生标志词：only, extreme.Argument 195（较难）数据含糊 only.模板：The editors remendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than big cityA caused financial troubleB. However, mon sense informs me that this assumption is a poor one. A myriad of other factors, including prise_ , might just as likely be th

23、e cause of B. To be specific, _. Without ruling out these and other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by small city。_ can _解决financial trouble.充分必要条件的写作词汇归纳：名词：condition、requirement、necessary、sufficient condition、sufficiency（充分性）、oute、aftermath（结果、余波）动词：constitute、est

24、ablish、suffice、result（ing）、induce、render、exclude、rule of形容词、副词：sufficient、necessary、（必然的、必要的）、necessarily、required三、因果关系（Cause and Effect Fallacies）因果类错误的攻击原理：原文说A是B的原因，指出A不是原因，原因是C或者D，和充分必要条件是一样的，不同在于语言的操作。无因果类错误（Non sequitur）原文的“因”和“果”之间并不存在因果关系。标志词：so，cause，reason，since，link（关联），population（关联、关系）

25、，connection，therefore，and（并列句能传达因果关系）Argument 212：Argument 142：注：a、要读就读名校，自身素养会提高，校友自愿会非常丰富。如果做research，越早去越好。我们国家不提原创性东西，都是看人家的论文做算法的改进，做仿真。b、每晚和杯红葡萄酒、可以安睡。A版本：The arguer fails to establish the causalrelationship between the fact that _（“果”）and the claim that _（“因”）. This argument is unacceptable u

26、nless there is pelling（相当于persuasive） evidence to support the connection between these two events. Perhaps, for example, _ results from _（随便几个原因列进去就可以了）.B版本：The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B. It is highly possible that other factors contribute to B（归因于也可以用attribut

27、e B to A）. B might have resulted from C. It is also likely that D caused B. Lacking evidence that links A to B, it is presumptuous（武断的、莽撞的） to suggest that A was responsible for B.2、时序因果关系类错误（Post hoc, ergo proper hoc）错误原理：原文构建了两个错误，A发生在B之前，B发生在A之后，然后说由于A发生在B之前A就是B的原因。攻击方式：说两个时间的时序关系不能反应其逻辑关系标志词：bec

28、ause，after this，since then，therefore，consequence（因此）、consequentlyArgument 2Argument 102构造一个段落：Based on the fact that A occurred after B, the editor infers that B should be responsible for A. However, the sequence of these events, in itself（在他本身来说）, does not suffice to prove that earlier incident（eve

29、nt） caused the later one. It might have resulted from some other events instead: （这里列举原因） to just a few possibilities（等等以上这些原因）. Without ruling out scenarios（场景） such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect（专门指代因果关系） relationship between A and B upon which the editors remendation de

30、pends.该段落focus on了两个词：sequence、logic注：推荐电影：幸福终点站（汤姆汉克斯）、蝴蝶效应、电子情书、绿色奇迹、小道惊魂、The May（很多人吓出了毛病）VOICE001-105分钟之前求求你表扬我、再说一次我爱你（X德华）、童梦奇缘（X德华，看完了很舒服）、神探（英文名为疯狂的神探）推荐书籍和杂志：科学美国人、TTC（36g的音频文件，还有PCF，先下相关专业，适合练听力）、设置首页为USNews（没记全）3、同时因果错误（Concurrence）错误原理：在时间轴上的某一个段内或某一个时刻上，AB两个事件同时发生，但作者在两事件中强行加入了逻辑联系或因果联系

31、。标志词：meanwhile、also、with、during、under、over（在期间）、parallelArgument 153Argument 85（有两层同时因果错误）A版本：The argument observes a correlation between A and B, and then concludes that the former is the cause of the later. However, the argument fails to rule out other possible explanations for A or B. For example

32、, 其他可能原因. Any of these factors might lead to B. Without ruling out all other factors it is unfair to conclude that A is responsible for B.B版本：（首句指出逻辑错误的名称ETS认为是废话，不提倡）The author mits a fallacy of concurrence（同时性的）、in assuming that4、混淆因果错误（Confuse the cause and effect）高档逻辑错误，但是没有在242个题里出现。错误原理：原文说A导致

33、了B的发生（嵌套这一上三种因果关系），但实际更多可能是B导致了A的发生。攻击方法：首先攻击两者之间可能不存在因果关系；进而让步，即便真的存在因果关系，但似乎我们通过常理可以看出，更多的可能性是由于B的发生导致A的发生。模板：It is possible that the mayor has confused cause with effect respecting the recent developments in Ocean View. Perhaps A was a response（反应） to B. Since the mayor has failed to account for

34、this possibility, the claim that is pletely unwarranted.5、攻击“忽略他因”也是用于替换，主义语言的多样化，见讲义P4。模板：The arguer fails to account for other possible cause of 果. 果 might have been due to 其他原因. Without ruling out these and other alternative explanations for 果. The arguer cannot reasonably infer based on those tr

35、ends that 因.因果关系的写作词汇归纳：名词：relation、causality（因果关系文本化表达）、relevance、conjunction、connection、nexus（legal nexus）、association、linkage注：金融和法律以及保健（特别是性保健）每个人都要学动词：associate、link、connect、relate to、ignore、overlook、neglect、lose sight of形容词和副词：relational、relevant、related、carcal、sequent（次序的）、traceable（追溯到的）四、X围

36、变化类错误（Changing Scope Fallacies）1、偷换概念（Different concepts）2、由个体推整体（What is true for a member is also true for the group）3、整体推个体（Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group member）其中第二个和第三个比较常见，但是第一个也有二三十道题。往往和调查类错误嵌套在一起。X围变化类错误的表征现象：a 题干的引言单据和正文总体出现了一个大的纵向的错误b 正文内部论据和结论之间发生X围的变换或者缩小标

37、志词：throughout（the country）、nationwide、statewide（都表示州而不表示全国）、 overall、across、average偷换概念（Different concepts）Argument 167：攻击方法：作者没有对说明的东西给出严格的定义以至于他混淆了这个概念。模板：A threshold problem involves the definition of A. The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined as B, then how C, is irrelevan

38、t to whether 结论. In short, without a clear definition of A,it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.注：提神可以早起用鼻子轻轻吸点凉水。每天中午闭眼（眼睛最累的时候）左转三圈右转三圈。颈椎问题：每天在晚上或者中午的时候点一个米二三十下。由个体推整体（What is true for a member is also true for the group）Argument 8：以彼之道还彼之身（又故意设置的话，一定要找出来，不然会扣分。题库中这样的题有二三十道题）模板

39、：The argument resets on the assumption that 个体案例 typify nationwide 整体情况. If this is not the case, then it is entirely possible that 在另一个地方，上述个案的结果不会发生相同的情况.Thus, lacking more marketing information about _ nationwide, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memos remendation.Argument 206：重要A模板：One

40、 problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide(characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group) statistics about _ applies equally to 个体成员, yet this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps _; or perhaps _. Without ruling out such possibilit

41、ies, the author cannot justifiably conclude that _.B模板：（单句可以灵活使用当不是主要逻辑错误是，用一句话合并到主要逻辑错误当中去，有主有次）The overall trend in the nation may not reply the basic the conditions of this specific area.讲一个特例平均值类错误（Average）错误原理：平均值不能概括整体信息，或者平均值的采样根本不包含该个体。Argument 240：注:博客里有出国的时间表。八月份要在网上预约房租，要和美国人住在一起。整体推个体（As

42、suming that characteristics of a group apply to each group member）写作词汇：名词：scope、localization（本土化、地方化）、diversity（多样性）、variety（变化性）、individual、unit（整体）、whole（抽象的整体概念）动词：extend（延伸）、expand（放大）、broaden、enlarge、spread、shrink、distinguish、discriminate（也有歧视的意思）形容词和副词：overall、generally、extensive、entire、divers

43、、dissimilar、multiplex（最文本化的表达：多元的）五、考虑问题不全面（Inplete Thought）1、没有考虑一个事物的正反两面性（Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly）e. g. 说一个事物具有两面性：sth 中当了 double-edged sword错误原理：因为有好处就该做，或反之攻击：有好处也可能带来弊端，弊端可能大于好处，或反之Argument 2062、没有考虑结论的可行性（Failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusion

44、）1和2都不是重要错误，用单句（即标题）就可以。但是其子类非常重要Profit问题。注：PS中用别人的嘴说出我的优点，注重团队精神。Profit问题：大错误！要一个段落。利润 = 收入成本（也相当于偷换概念）攻击：利润不仅和收入有关而且和成本有关，成本大于利润会赤字。也有可能是反着说，不过题库里没有。关键词：就是利润和成本和收入。Argument 170：Argument 180：模板：（第一句概括原文信息，指出在哪里犯了错误）The authors conclusion that _ is unwarranted. Profit is a factor relating to not onl

45、y revenue,but also costs. Its entirely possible that the costs of A,or other costs associated with BC, will offset（抵消）, even outweigh the revenue. Besides, a myriad of other unpredictable occurrence, such as unfavorable economic depression, might prevent _ from being as profitable in the foreseeable

46、 future as the argument predicts.美国有一段时间出现经济的大萧条（a great depression），它来自于股市（stock market）的大崩盘（great crash）写作词汇归纳：名词：disadvantage、drawback、demerit、advantage、merit、worthiness、pros and cons（正反两面性）、revenue、ine（ine gap收入差距）、proceeds、margin、gain（受益）、cost、feasibility（可行性）动词：consider、balance、weigh、pare形容词和副

47、词：allround、allsided、onesided（片面的， love：单相思）、unilateral（片面的、单一的）注：1、认认真真的爱上一个人，被这个人爱上。2、认认真真的做一件事。人这辈子要是不变态几次，办不成大事。梦想的是个矢量。六、外推类错误（All things remain unchanged over time）1、过去的情况不能推得现在的情况和未来的情况（Past conditions remain unchanged in the present and future）攻击：用自己的话表述任何事物在过长的时间轴上都无法保持不变。时间轴上曾经一个好的趋势，但现在未必仍

48、然很好，将来也未必可以保证；因为很多背景信息会发生剧烈变化，人们无法预见的变化。注：珍惜你现在拥有的，稳步成长，不要急于求成。标志词：具体时间（seven years ago，last year）、trend、tendency（趋势）、continue、remain、stayArgument 2：先攻击时序因果错误，再攻击外推类错误模板：The author claims that 改写原文信息. The author assumes without justification that the background conditions have remained the same at d

49、ifferent time. The assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended period of time. There are likely all kinds of difference between A（现在） and B（将来）.For example, A;however,B .Any of these scenarios,if true, would serve（表示充当什么的作用的意思） to undermine（颠覆） the claim that 原文的声称.

50、 2、现在的情况不能推出未来的情况（Present Conditions will remain unchanged into future）Argument 240：攻击：写作词汇：名词：trend、tendency、direction、fixedness（文本化：不变性）、diversity（多样性）动词：forecast、anticipate、expect、continue（延续）、remain、alter（只细微变化，而change往往指的是大的变化）、inflect（文本化：改变、变化）、shift（转移、变化）、transfer（改变、转移）形容词和副词：bypast、forepa

51、st（过去的）、current、present、intending（将来的）、continued（延续的）、changeless（不变的）、unaltered（不变的）、variable注：很多时候写不下去是堵在词上七、论据含糊（Vague evidence）（一类中最小的逻辑错误）它的出现标志着让步式攻击在False analogy 错误中的出现主观词汇类错误错误原理：主观性表达所引起的词汇类错误，例如promise、guess等。因为结论要给予事实和例举。Argument 225：写作词汇归纳：vague、invalid（无效的、含糊的）、void（无效的）、illdefined（含糊的）

52、、indistinct、unclear注意：储备功能段落而不是背X文。2、关联型FA（False Analogy）标志词：follow。错误的机理：作者所A做了某件事，那么B也应该效仿之。但作者没有提到该事件给A带来的益处。攻击：先攻击关联型FA的模糊论据，再攻击FA。首先，作者的论据是invalid，没有指出A通过取得了收益上的增加，即便如此，同样的做法也未必适用于B。Argument 43：八、横比与纵比（Analogy and parison）（重中之重）所谓纵比：是自己和自己在时间轴上比1 错误类比（False analogy）错误原因：一个东西在一个地方取得成功，同样做法在另外一个地

53、放未必取得成功。并指出两个事物存在深层次的差异和不可比性。攻击方法：首先指出两个地区/国家/人/行业之间的错误类比;列举两者之间的种种差异;未能排除这些可能的差异的情况下,不能够导出结论.标志词:similar、same、nearby、neighboring标志现象：两个行业或公司的名车个、两个城市/国家/州就存在地理位置之间的类比关系错误类比的表征现象：引言句（引言句出现的名字而正文未显现）两种错误上面有提到。Argument 204：写作词汇归纳：名词：analogy、parison、similarity、parability（可比性）、parallelism（相似性、可比性）动词：res

54、emble（类似于，相似）、differ（区分）、vary（变化）、distinguish（区分）、discriminate、secern（区别，最书面化的用语）形容词副词：analogically（类比地、类似地）、homologous（类似的）、distinct、dissimilar、disparate（迥然不同different的文本化表达）注： HYPERLINK mailto:xiaobao_gre_901163. xiaobao_gre_901163.，密码为1234567890gre。笔考02到07的真题资料（包括答案），也可以买白皮书;Issue写作资料三X图（诺贝尔文学、经济

55、学等）足够cover住issue的所有论据素材；数学总结；形近词的总结；难句。选择性不完整比较（Inplete or selective parison）错误原因：原文说A做了一件事，因此B也应该follow之攻击：说A和B不能类比Argument 233：模板：The arguers remendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between A and B. The analogy falsely depends on the assumption that _ in both A and B are similar. Howeve

56、r, it is entirely possible that A and B 存在的不同（列举一两条）. In short, without accounting for（落下一个词，没听清）possible differences between A and B, the arguer cannot reasonably prove B will reap the similar benefits（这里用复数对嘛）. 题库226（两个行业间的差异）To strengthen the argument, instead of relying on a dubious analogy betw

57、een A and B, the arguer should supply evidence, perhaps by way of a survey or a marketing program at A,to prove that (the proposed method will indeed help A)/A will indeed reap the similar benefits from the method.（3）parison and Variation 横比和纵比错误类比：空间上的错误类比横比外推类错误：时间上的错误类比纵比（这部分没有听到）九、非此即彼类错误（False dilemma）！是个小错误（因为出现数量不多），但是是最难攻击的因为有的可以用原理一攻击，有的可以用原理二，有的既可以用一又可以用二原理一：作者往往会对一个现象列