专业英语翻译1

1、Basic Chemistry1. Atomic StructureMatter has mass and takes up space. Atoms are basic building blocks of matter, and cannot be chemically subdivided by ordinary means. Both the protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus. Protons have a positive (+) charge, neutrons have no charge -they are neutral.

2、Electrons reside in orbitals around the nucleus. They have a negative charge (-). It is the number of protons that determines the atomic number. The number of protons in an element is constant but neutron number may vary, so mass number (protons + neutrons) may vary. 1。原子结构物质有质量，占空间。原子是物质的基本组成物，不能用普

3、通的方法进行化学细分。质子和中子都驻留在原子核中。质子有一个正电荷，中子是不带电的，它们是中性的。电子在原子核周围的轨道上。他们有一个负电荷-。它是确定原子序数的质子数。在一个元素中的质子的数量是恒定的，但中子数可能会有所不同，所以质量数质子+中子可能会有所不同。The same element may contain varying numbers of neutrons; these forms of an element are called isotopes. The chemical properties of isotopes are the same, although the

4、physical properties of some isotopes may be different. Some isotopes are radioactive-meaning they "radiate" energy as they decay to a more stable form, perhaps another element half-life: time required for half of the atoms of an element to decay into stable form. Another example is oxygen,

5、 with atomic number of 8 can have 8, 9, or 10 neutrons. 相同的元素可能含有不同数量的中子，这些元素的这些形式被称为同位素。同位素的化学性质是相同的，虽然一些同位素的物理性质可能是不同的。一些同位素是放射性的，这意味着它们“辐射”能量，因为它们衰变到一个更稳定的形式，也许另一个元素半衰期：所需的元素的原子的一半，衰变成稳定的形式。另一个例子是氧气，原子数为8，可以有8，9，或10个中子。Here is a list of the basic characteristics of atoms: An atom is a basic chemi

6、cal building block of matter. Atoms cannot be divided using chemicals. They do consist of parts, which include protons, neutrons, and electrons, but an atom is a basic chemical building block of matter. Each electron has a negative electrical charge. Each proton has a positive electrical charge. The

7、 charge of a proton and an electron are equal in magnitude, yet opposite in sign. Electrons and protons are electrically attracted to each other. 这里是一个原子的基本特征列表：原子是一个基本的化学构建块的事。原子不可分为使用化学物质。他们做的包括部分，其中包括质子，中子和电子，但原子是一个基本的化学物质块的物质。每个电子带负电荷。每个质子带正电荷。一个质子和一个电子的电荷在数量上是相等的，而在符号相反。电子和质子相互电吸引。 Each neutron

8、 is electrically neutral. In other words, neutrons do not have a charge and are not electrically attracted to either electrons or protons. Protons and neutrons are about the same size as each other and are much larger than electrons. The mass of a proton is essentially the same as that of a neutron.

9、 The mass of a proton is 1840 times greater than the mass of an electron. The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. The nucleus carries a positive electrical charge. 每个中子是电中性的。换言之，中子不带电，也没有电吸引到电子或质子。质子与中子的大小相同、互比电子大得多。质子的质量与中子的质量基本上是相同的。质子的质量比电子的质量大1840倍。原子包含质子和中子的核。细胞核携带正电荷。 Electrons m

10、ove around outside the nucleus. Almost all of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus; almost all of the volume of an atom is occupied by electrons. The number of protons (also known as its atomic number) determines the element. Varying the number of neutrons results in isotopes. Varying the number of

11、 electrons results in ions. Isotopes and ions of an atom with a constant number of protons are all variations of a single element. 电子绕核外。几乎所有原子的质量是其核心；几乎所有原子的原子量是通过电子占领。质子数也被称为原子数决定元素。改变同位素的中子数。改变离子的数量。具有恒定数量的质子的原子的同位素和离子都是一个单一元素的变化。 The particles within an atom are bound together by powerful forces

12、. In general, electrons are easier to add or remove from an atom than a proton or neutron. Chemical reactions largely involve atoms or groups of atoms and the interactions between their electrons. 原子内部的粒子是由强大的力量结合在一起。在一般情况下，电子是更容易添加或删除从一个原子比一个质子或中子。化学反应在很大程度上涉及原子或原子团，以及它们的电子之间的相互作用。2. Chemical Bondi

13、ngAtoms are the basic building blocks of all types of matter. Atoms link to other atoms through chemicals bonds resulting from the strong attractive forces that exist between the atoms. So what exactly is a chemical bond? It is a region that forms when electrons from different atoms interact with ea

14、ch other. The electrons that participate in chemical bonds are the valence electrons, which are the electrons found in an atom's outermost shell. When two atoms approach each other these outer electrons interact. Electrons repel each other, yet they are attracted to the protons within atoms. The

15、 interplay of forces results in some atoms forming bonds with each other and sticking together. 2。化学键原子是所有类型物质的基本组成块。原子通过化学键连接到其他原子，产生的原子之间存在着很强的引力作用。那么到底什么是化学键？当电子从不同的原子相互作用时，它是一个形成的区域。参与化学键的电子是价电子，这是在原子的最外层中发现的电子。当两个原子相互接近时，这些外电子相互作用。电子相互排斥，但它们被原子内的质子所吸引。在某些原子的相互作用，形成相互联系，并粘在一起的原子。 Ionic bondsIoni

16、c bonds arise from elements with low electronegativity (almost empty outer shells) reacting with elements with high electronegativity (mostly full outer shells). In this case there is a complete transfer of electrons.  A well known example is table salt, sodium chloride. Sodium gives up its one

17、 outer shell electron completely to chlorine which needs only one electron to fill its shell. Thus, the attraction between these atoms is much like static electricity since opposite charges attract. 离子键离子键出现低电负性元素几乎是空的外壳具有高电负性元素的反应主要是完整的外壳。在这种情况下，有一个完整的电子转移。 一个众所周知的例子是表盐，氯化钠。钠完全将它的一个外壳电子完全化为氯，只需要一个电

18、子来填充它的外壳。因此，这些原子之间的吸引力是很像静电，因为相反的电荷吸引。 Covalent bondCovalent bonds involve a complete sharing of electrons and occurs most commonly between atoms that have partially filled outer shells or energy levels. Thus if the atoms are similar in negativity then the electrons will be shared. Carbon forms cova

19、lent bonds. The electrons are in hybrid orbitals formed by the atoms involved as in this example: ethane. Diamond is strong because it involves a vast network of covalent bonds between the carbon atoms in the diamond.共价键共价键涉及一个完整的共享电子，发生最常见的原子之间的部分填充的外壳或能量水平。因此，如果原子类似于负性，那么电子将被共享。碳形成共价键。电子在混合轨道形成的原子

20、所涉及的在这个例子：乙烷。钻石是强大的，因为它涉及到一个巨大的网络中的碳原子之间的共价键的钻石。 Polar Covalent Bond.  These bonds are in between covalent and ionic bonds in that the atoms share electrons but the electrons spend more of their time around on atom versus the others in the compound. This type of bond occurs when the atoms invol

21、ved differ greatly in electronegativity. The most familiar example is water. Oxygen is much more electronegative than hydrogen, and so the electrons involved in bonding the water molecule spend more time there. The fact that water is a polar covalently bonded molecule has a number of implications fo

22、r molecules that are dissolved in water. In particular, molecules with polar covalent bonds can break apart when they encounter water molecules. They are broken apart because of the electrical attraction between the dissimilar charges of the molecules. Also, since ionically bonded molecules involve

23、ions with opposite charges, water with its polar covalent bonds can separate ions from each other and then surround the ions which prevents them from recombining. The properties of water all relate to this polar covalent bonding. 极性共价键。 这些债券是在共价键和离子键之间，原子共享电子，但电子花费更多的时间在原子与其他化合物在化合物中的原子之间的相互关系。这类债券时

24、所涉及的原子电负性大不同。最熟悉的例子是水。氧的电负性高于氢多，所以参与键合的水分子会花更多的时间在电子。水是一个极性共价键的分子的事实，有一些对溶解在水中的分子的影响。特别是，极性共价键的分子可以打破分开时，他们遇到水分子。他们被打破了，因为分子的不同电荷之间的电引力。同时，由于离子键分子与带有相反电荷的离子，其极性共价键离子水可以分开彼此，然后围绕离子阻止重组。水的性质都与这种极性共价键合。 Hydrogen Bond.The fact that the oxygen end of a water molecule is negatively charged and the hydroge

25、n end positively charged means that the hydrogens of one water molecule attract the oxygen of its neighbor and vice versa. This is because unlike charges attract. This largely electrostatic attraction is called a hydrogen bond and is important in determining many important properties of water that m

26、ake it such an important liquid for living things. Water can also form this type of bond with other polar molecules or ions such as hydrogen or sodium ions. Further, hydrogen bonds can occur within and between other molecules. For instance, the two strands of a DNA molecule are held together by hydr

27、ogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules and the amino acids of proteins are involved in maintaining the protein's proper shape. This picture represents a small group of water molecules. Hydrogen bonds between unlike charges are shown as lines without arrows on the ends. The double a

28、rrowed lines represent the fact that like charges repel each other. Both hydrogen bonds and the repelling forces balance each other and are both are important in determining the properties of water.氢键。事实上，一个水分子的氧端带负电荷和正电荷的氢的结束意味着一个水分子的氢原子吸引氧邻国和反之亦然。这是因为不同的收费吸引。这在很大程度上是静电引力被称为氢键，是重要的，在确定许多重要的水的性质，使它成

29、为一个重要的生活的东西的液体。水也可以形成这种类型的键与其他的极性分子或离子，如氢或钠离子。此外，氢键可以发生在和其他分子之间的。例如，一个DNA分子的两条链通过氢键结合在一起。水分子与蛋白质的氨基酸之间的氢键参与维持蛋白质的适当的形状。这张照片代表了一小组水分子。不同电荷之间的氢键被显示为两端没有箭头的线。双箭头线代表的是同种电荷互相排斥。氢键和排斥力相互平衡，都是在确定水的性质很重要。3. Types of chemical reactionsA chemical reaction is a process that always results in the conversion of

30、reactants into product or products. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants. A type of a chemical reaction is usually characterized by the type of chemical change, and it yields one or more products which are, in general, different from the reactant

31、s. Generally speaking, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds. 三.化学反应的类型化学反应是一个过程，总是会导致反应物转化为产品或产品。最初参与化学反应的物质或物质称为反应物。一种化学反应的类型通常是由化学变化的类型，它产生一个或多个产品，在一般情况下，不同的反应物。一般来说，化学反应包括改变，严格涉及电子在化学键的形成和断裂的运动。Chemical eq

32、uations are often used to describe the chemical transformations of elementary particles that occur during the reaction. Chemical changes are a result of chemical reactions. All chemical reactions involve a change in substances and a change in energy. However, neither matter nor energy is created or

33、destroyed in a chemical reaction. There are so many chemical reactions that it is helpful to classify them into different types including the widely used terms for describing common reactions.化学方程经常被用来描述在反应过程中发生的基本粒子的化学变换。化学变化是化学反应的结果。所有的化学反应都涉及物质的变化和能量的变化。然而，无论是物质还是能量都在化学反应中被创造或消灭。有这么多的化学反应，它有助于将它们

34、分类成不同的类型，包括广泛使用的术语来描述常见的反应。Combination reaction or synthesis reaction: it is a reaction in which 2 or more chemical elements or compounds unite to form a more complex product.Example: N2 + 3 H2 ? 2 NH3组合反应或合成反应：它是一种反应，其中2个或更多的化学元素或化合物结合起来，形成一个更复杂的产品。Isomerisation reaction: is a reaction in which a c

35、hemical compound undergoes a structural rearrangement without any change in its net atomic composition.Example: trans-2-butene and cis-2-butene are isomers. Chemical decomposition reaction or analysis: is a reaction in which a compound is decomposed into smaller compounds or elements: Example: 2 H2O

36、 ? 2 H2 + O2 异构化反应是一个反应的化合物进行结构重排不净原子组成的任何变化。例如：反式-2-丁烯和反-2-丁烯是我萨默斯。化学分解反应或分析：是一种反应，其中一种化合物被分解成较小的化合物或元素：Single displacement or substitution: this type of reaction is characterized by an element being displaced out of a compound by a more reactive element. Example: 2 Na(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ? 2 NaCl(aq) +

37、 H2(g) 单置换或置换：这种类型的反应，其特征在于由一个元素被流离失所的化合物由一个更活泼的元素。Metathesis or Double displacement reaction: represents a reaction in which two compounds exchange ions or bonds to form different compounds 置换或双取代反应：表示的反应物或债券交换离子形成不同的化合物Acid-base reactions: broadly these reactions are characterized as reactions bet

38、ween an acid and a base, can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are:酸碱反应：广泛的反应，其特征是酸和碱之间的反应，可以有不同的定义，这取决于所采用的酸碱平衡。一些最常见的是：Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3O+ ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH- ions. Br

39、ønsted-Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H+) donors; bases are proton acceptors. 阿伦尼乌斯的定义：酸游离在水中释放H3O+离子；碱游离在水中释放OH-离子。Br nstedøLowry定义：酸是质子H +者；碱是质子的受体。Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors; bases are electron-pair donors. Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ? NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)刘易斯

40、定义：酸是电子对受体；碱是电子对供体。Redox reactions: are reactions in which changes in oxidation numbers of atoms in involved species occur. Those reactions can often be interpreted as transfer of electrons between different molecular sites or species. Example: 2 S2O32?(aq) + I2(aq) ? S4O62?(aq) + 2 I?(aq) 氧化复原反应：在所

41、涉及的物种中的原子的氧化数的变化的反应发生。这些反应通常可以被解释为不同的分子位点或物种之间的电子转移。In this case, I2 is reduced to I- and S2O32- (thiosulfate anion) is oxidized to S4O62-.Combustion reaction: it is a kind of redox reaction in which any combustible substance combines with an oxidizing element, usually oxygen, to generate heat and f

42、orm oxidized products. Example: C3H8 + 5 O2 ? 3 CO2 + 4 H2O 在这种情况下，I2减少到我和S2O32-硫代硫酸根阴离子氧化s4o62。燃烧反应：它是一种氧化复原反应，任何可燃物质都结合了氧化元素，通常是氧气，产生热，形成氧化产物。Other types of chemical reactions include organic reactions which are found in organic chemistry.其他化学反应的类型包括有机化学反应中发现的有机化学反应。Organic reactions compose a wid

43、e variety of reactions involving compounds which have carbon as the main element in their molecular structure. In opposition to inorganic reactions, organic chemistry reactions are classified in large part by the types of the functional groups that exist within each compound. In this case the reacti

44、ons are described by showing the mechanisms through which the changes take place.有机反应合成了各种各样的反应，其中以碳为主要元素的化合物在分子结构中。在对无机反应的反对，有机化学反应是在很大程度上是由在每个化合物中存在的官能团的类型的分类。在这种情况下，反应被描述通过示出的机制，通过该变化发生。Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. The basic organic chemistry reaction type

45、s are listed bellow:- Addition reactions- Elimination reactions- Substitution reactions- Redox reactions- Rearrangement reactions- Pericyclic reactions有机反应是涉及有机化合物的化学反应。基本有机化学反应类型如下：-加成反应-消除反应-取代反应氧化复原反应重排反应Pericyclic反应4. What factors influence the rate of a chemical reaction?TemperatureConcentratio

46、ns of reactantsCatalystsSurface area of a solid reactantPressure of gaseous reactants or products4。什么因素影响一个化学反应的速率？温度反应物浓度催化剂固体反应物的外表积气态反应物或产物压力If you are planning an investigation, I suggest that you investigate the effects of temperature or the effects of the concentration of the reactants because

47、 these will allow you to choose a suitable range of values for the controlled or independent variable. The dependent variable will be the rate of the reaction. Keep all the other variables fixed.To make a prediction for your investigation you will have to ask yourself the question: What will happen

48、to the rate of the reaction when I increase the temperature? or What will happen to the rate of the reaction if I increase the concentration of one of the reactants? The answer to that question is your prediction. The next thing to do is to explain your prediction. You will have to answer the questi

49、on: Why will the reaction go faster if I increase the temperature? or Why will the reaction go faster if I increase the concentration of one of the reactions? The answer to this question is your explanation, and to get the highest possible marks, you will have to provide a full scientific explanatio

50、n.如果你正在计划一项调查，我建议你调查温度的影响或反应物的浓度的影响，因为这些将允许你选择一个合适的范围内的值的控制或独立的变量。因变量将是反应的速率。保持所有其他变量固定。要为你的调查做一个预测，你必须问自己：当我增加温度时，反应的速率会发生什么？如果我增加一个反应物的浓度，反应的速率会发生什么？这个问题的答案是你的预测。下一步要做的是解释你的预测。你将不得不答复这个问题：为什么反应会走得更快，如果我增加温度？或者，如果我增加一个反应的浓度，反应速度会更快？这个问题的答案是你的解释，并获得最高的可能的标志，你将不得不提供一个完整的科学解释。Once you have written you

51、r hypothesis (prediction with explanation) you will decide how to do the experiments, i.e. write the proposed method.一旦你写了你的假设预测与解释，你将决定如何做实验，即写所提出的方法。 How does temperature affect the rate of a chemical reaction?When two chemicals react, their molecules have to collide with each other with sufficien

52、t energy for the reaction to take place. This is collision theory. The two molecules will only react if they have enough energy. By heating the mixture, you will raise the energy levels of the molecules involved in the reaction. Increasing temperature means the molecules move faster. This is kinetic

53、 theory. If your reaction is between atoms rather than molecules you just substitute "atom" for "molecule" in your explanation.温度会如何影响化学反应速率？当两种化学物质发生反应时，它们的分子必须相互碰撞，以产生足够的能量来发生反应。这是碰撞理论。这两个分子只会反应，如果他们有足够的能量。通过加热混合物，你将提高在反应中所涉及的分子的能量水平。温度的升高意味着分子移动得更快。这是动力学理论。如果你的反应是原子之间的，而不是分子，你

54、只是用“原子”的“分子”在你的解释。 How do catalysts affect the rate of a reaction?Catalysts speed up chemical reactions. Only very minute quantities of the catalyst are required to produce a dramatic change in the rate of the reaction. This is really because the reaction proceeds by a different pathway when the cat

55、alyst is present. Adding extra catalyst will make absolutely no difference. There is a whole page on this site devoted to catalysts.如何影响反应速率的催化剂？催化剂加快化学反应。只有非常小的量的催化剂，需要产生一个戏剧性的反应速率的变化。这是真的，因为当催化剂存在时，通过一个不同的途径进行反应。添加额外的催化剂将绝对没有区别。在这个网站上有一个专门用于催化剂的整页。 How does concentration affect the rate of a react

56、ion?Increasing the concentration of the reactants will increase the frequency of collisions between the two reactants. So this is collision theory again. You also need to discuss kinetic theory in an experiment where you vary the concentration. Although you keep the temperature constant, kinetic the

57、ory is relevant. This is because the molecules in the reaction mixture have a range of energy levels. When collisions occur, they do not always result in a reaction. If the two colliding molecules have sufficient energy they will react.如何浓度影响反应速率？增加反应物的浓度会增加两种反应物之间的碰撞的频率。所以这又是碰撞理论。你还需要在一个实验中讨论的动力学理论

58、，在那里你改变浓度。虽然你保持的温度常数，动力学理论是相关的。这是因为在反应混合物中的分子有一个范围的能量水平。当碰撞发生时，他们并不总是导致反应。如果这两个碰撞分子有足够的能量，他们会作出反应。If reaction is between a substance in solution and a solid, you just vary the concentration of the solution. The experiment is straightforward. If the reaction is between two solutions, you have a sligh

59、t problem. Do you vary the concentration of one of the reactants or vary the concentration of both? You might find that the rate of reaction is limited by the concentration of the weaker solution, and increasing the concentration of the other makes no difference. What you need to do is fix the concentration of on