(完整版)戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记_自己整理版最新（精华版）

1、chapter 1introductionwhat is linguistics?什么是语言学a the definition of linguisticslinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language对( process of linguistic study: certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; hypotheses are formulated; hypotheses are tested by furt

2、her observations; a linguistic theory is constructed.语言进行的科学研究 )b the scope of linguisticsgeneral linguistics 普通语言学 : the study of language as a whole从整体研究1.phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic mediumof language) (how speech sounds are prod

3、uced and classified)2. phonology : is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3. morphology : the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form

4、words)4. syntax : the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5. semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6. pragmatics : the study of meaning in context of use sociolinguistics: the study of

5、 language with reference to societypsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindapplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical ling

6、uistics; mathematical linguistics;computational linguisticsc some important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive vs. descriptive规定性与描写性 synchronic vs. diachronic共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）the description of a language at somepoint in time;the description of a language as it changetshrough time. speech a

7、nd writing言语与文字spoken language is primary, not the written langue and parole语言和言语proposed by swiss linguistsf. de sausse(sociological)langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech commu（nit指y社团所有成员共有的语言系统）parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual

8、us（e 指语言在实际运用中的实现） competence and performance语言能力与语言运用proposed by the american linguistn. chomsky (psychological)一个话语competence: the ideal user s knodwgeleof the rules of his language（.则方面的知识）理想的语言使用者关于语言规performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication（.交流中的具体实现）wh

9、at is language?什么是语言a the definition of language这种知识在语言language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。 )a) system: combined together according to rules（根据规则组合在一起）b) arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the sy

10、mbol stands fo（r符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c) vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d) human: language is human-specific （语言是人类所独有的）语言符号和b design features (unique properties) : the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicati

11、on （识别特征 是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）arbitrariness （任意性）there is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a) echo of the sounds of objects or acti

12、vitieso: nomatopoeic words（拟声词）b) some compound words（某些复合词）productivity （能产性，创造性）language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (creativity or open-endedness) duality （双重结构性，两重性或二元性）language is organized at two levels or layers simu

13、ltaneously. the lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. the higher level is morpheme or word (double articulatio（n)语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。 在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构， 其自身没有什么意义； 较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性 /语言的双层性）displacement （跨时空性，移位性）language can be used to refer to contexts removed from t

14、he immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)cultural transition（文化传递性）while human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,

15、 but instead have to be taught and learnt.the above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language.chapter 2phonology音位学a the definition of phonetics（语音学）phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s langua（ge是s

16、.指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulate（d.发音语音学）acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the a（ir.听觉语音学） auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speec

17、h sound（s.声学语音学）b organs of speech（发音器官）voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. voiced (voicing):浊音 when the vocal cords声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibratio

18、n effect.all the english vowels 元音 are typically voiced (voicing).the important cavities:the pharyngeal cavity 咽腔the oral cavity 口腔the nasal cavity 鼻腔其他部位： lips 唇 1, teeth齿 2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈 3, hard palate硬腭 4, soft palate (velum)软腭 5, uvula 小舌 6, tip of tongue 舌尖 7, blade of tongue舌面 8, b

19、ack of tongue舌后 9, vocal cords声带 10c orthographic representation of speech sounds： broad and narrow transcriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式 /窄式标音）ipa (international phonetic alphabet/association国际语音协会 / 国际音标 ) broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only （代表字母的符号）narrow transcription: the tran

20、scription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics（变音符）e.g.:lli:f-a clear l (no diacritic)lbild-a dark l ()lhelp-a dental l ( )ppit-an aspirated ph( h 表示送气)pspit-an unaspirated p (no diacritic)n btna syllabic nasal n ()d classification of english consonants （英语辅音的分类）in terms of manner of art

21、iculation根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created)stops 闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly p/b, t/d, k/gfricatives 摩擦音 : the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the monthf/v, s/z, / , /, h (approximant)affricates 塞擦音 :

22、the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives t/d liquids 流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouthla lateral sound; rretroflexglides 滑音: w, j (semi-vowels)liquid + glides + happr

23、oximantsnasals 鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it m, n, by place of articulation根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created)bilabial 双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions p/b, w (velar)labiodentals 唇齿音: the lower

24、 lip and the upper teeth f/vdental 齿音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth /alveolar 齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge t/d, s/z, n, l, rpalatal 腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate / ,t/d , jvelars 软腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum k, g, glottal 喉音: th

25、e glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx he classification of english vowels（英语元音的分类） the highest position of the tongue : front, central, back; the openness of the mouth : close, semi-close, semi-open, open; the roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):all the front, central vo

26、wels are unrounded vowels except all the back vowels, except a: are rounded vowels the length of the sound : long vowels & short vowels larynx(tense) or (lax)monophthongs, diphthongscardinal vowelsf the definition of phonology（音位学）phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all huma

27、n languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns a

28、nd how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.g phone, phoneme, and allophone （音素、音位、音位变体）phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment（因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）phoneme : a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个

29、有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）allophone : the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments arecalled the allophones of that phoneme（.体）在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变h phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体） phonemic contrast: when two phone

30、mes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they re in phonemic contrast.e.g. pin & bin/p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe/p/ vs. /b/（要会判断！）complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution

31、because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a min

32、imal pair.when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.i some rules in phonology sequential rules序列规则phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset:如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三

33、条规则：no1: /s/第一个音位一定是 /s/ voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/第二个音位一定是 /p/, /t/, /k/ approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/第三个音位一定是 /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ no2:the affricates t,d and the sibilants s,z, assimilation rules同化规则, arenot to be followed by another sibilants.co-articulation effects: the process of making on

34、e sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.assimilation & elision effects元音省略assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the othere.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound鼻. deletion rule/elision省略规

35、则音化现象definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolatione.g. delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonan省tj suprasegmental features（超音段特征） stress 重音word stress & sentence stress略词末鼻辅音前的 g 音the stress of the english com

36、pounds always on the first element tone 声调tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes像. 音素一样可以区别意义tone language, like chinese, has four tones汉.语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调level, rise, fall-rise

37、, fall阴平 阳平 上声 去声 intonation语调when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.english: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones四种语调the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the r

38、ise-fall tone 降调 声调 将声调 升降调chapter 3morphology形态学a the definition of morphologymorphologyis a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by whichwords are formed（.指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究）morpheme :词素 the most basic element of meaning（. 意义的最基本要素）(a minimal unit of meaning

39、 or grammatical function 最小的意义单位或者语法功能 )b free morphemes & bound morphemes （自由词素和黏着词素）free morphemes : can stand by themselves as single wordslexical morphemes n.a.v & functional morphemes n.bound morphemes : can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to

40、another form derivational morphemes派生词素 affix 词缀 (suffix, infix, prefix) + root 后缀 中缀 前缀+词根inflectional morphemes 曲折词素 8 types of inflectional morphemes in englishnoun+ - s-,s possessive所有格 ; plural 复数verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en 3rd person present singula第r式, past participle 过去分词 三人称单数 ; present parti

41、ciple现在分词 ; past tense过去adj + -er, -est comparative 比较级; superlative 最高级c derivational vs. inflectional派生（范畴 /语类）和曲折（语法标志）inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word只表示语法标志（时态、数、格） inflectional morphemes influence the whole category词的范畴 ;derivational morphemes are opposite

42、order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+曲折d morphological rules形态学规则（词的构成方式词素是怎样组合成为词 ）n. +lya.; a. +lyadv.; guard overgeneralizatione morphs and allomorphs语素和语素变体morphs : the actual forms used to realize morphemesallomorphs : a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morph

43、eme,a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.e.g.map-mapssdog-dogsz watch-watchesiz mouse-miceaiox-oxenn toothteethsheepsheepeach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.f word-formation process（构词法） coinagethe invention of totally new terms （创造全新的词） borrowingt

44、he taking over of words form other languages compoundinga joining of two separate words to produce a single form（组成复合词） blendingtaking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word clippinga word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form back formationa process by

45、which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word conversioncategory change, functional shift acronymsnew words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words derivationthe new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or word（s 添加词缀） abbrev

46、iationa shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form（缩短原词）chapter 4syntax句法学a the definition of syntaxsyntax : a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that governthe formation of sentence（s支）c types of sentences句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及

47、如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分simple sentence简单句 : consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.coordinate (compound) sentence并列（复合）句 : contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as“ and” ,“ by” ,“ or ”complex

48、sentence复杂句 : contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other embedded clause子句matrix clause主句 subordinatorfunctions as a grammatical unit may be completebsome categories（范畴）syntactic categories : refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function

49、, such as the subject or the predicate句法范畴lexical categories : (parts of speech词)汇范畴major lexical categories (open categories):n. v. adj. adv.minor lexical categories (closed categories):det. aux. prep. pron. conj. int.phrasal categories: np, vp, pp, ap短语范畴ccombinational rulesare small in numberyiel

50、d all the possible sentences rule out the impossible ones phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)（短语结构规则）snp vp(a sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase) np(det.限定词 ) (adj.) n (pp) (s) “ ”：包括 /分为vp(qual.修饰词 )v (np) (pop) (s)“( )”：内部的成分可以省略ap(deg.程度词 )a (pp) (s)“”：可以

51、选择附加其他补语pp(deg.)p npx- bar theoryheadan obligatory word that givers the phrase its name xp or x-phrasexp(specifier) x (complement) formula:x”spec x x-bar theory (x-bar schema)x x compld transformational rules转换规则d-structure and s-structure深层结构和表层结构deep structure : the structure that corresponds most

52、 closely to the meaningful grouping of words.it is abstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.surface structure: linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. a surface structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used i

53、n communication.two levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:one that exists before movement takes place the other that occurs after movement takes place formal linguistic exploration:d-structure : phrase structure rules + lexicon sentence at the level of d-structurethe application

54、 of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromd-structure level to s-structure level transformational-generative line of analysise syntactic relations sequential(syntagmatic) relations 组合关系the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence substitutional(paradigmatic) relati

55、ons (聚合关系 )if the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentenceand the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then we say the replacing forms and replaced forms have paradigmatic relations.f immediate constituent analysis（ ic analysis ）ic analysis is to s

56、imply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are.the principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemeslabeled ic analysissyntactic categories crit