《新编语言学教程》课后答案.doc

(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning. (2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning of the sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false, and knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowing the part that it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containing it. (3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names. (4) behaviorist theory: the view that the meaning of a linguistic form is dened as observable behaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology. (5) use theory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning of an expression is determined by its use in communication and more generally, in social interaction. (6) sense: the inherent part of an expressions meaning, together with the context, determines its referent. For example, knowing the sense of a noun phrase such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George (7) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree” (referent) in the real world. (8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitive meaning. It is the essential and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. For instance, the conceptual meaning of “he” in English is any male person or male animal. (9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purely conceptual meaning. For example, the connotative meaning of “woman” is emotional, frail, inconstant, irrational, etc. (10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationship to one another. For example, kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belong to a semantic eld whose relevant features include generation, sex, membership of the fathers or mothers side of family. (11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic eld of a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for “male” and “female” cousin. (12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyzes a word into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the English word boy may be shown as +human+male-adult. (13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaning of word may be described as a combination of semantic components or features. For example, the feature +male is part of the meaning of father, and so is the feature +adult, but other features are needed to make up the whole meaning of father. Often, semantic features are established by contrast and can be stated in terms of + and -, e.g. woman has the semantic features +human, -male and +adult. (14) synonym: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexical items, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased. (15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning between lexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad. (16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (the superordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant. (17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not only sections of the body but dened in terms of specic functions. For example, the head is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue. (18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation described or represented by the clause, for example as agent, patient, or cause. (19) entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one (the second) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Corday assassinated Marat and Marat is dead; if the rst is true, the second must be true.(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”2. (1) He waited by the bank. a. He waited by the nancial institution which people can keep their money in or borrow from. b. He waited by the bank of the river. (2) Is he really that kind? a. Is he really that type of person? b. Is he really that kind-hearted? (3) We bought her dog biscuits. a. We bought dog biscuits for her. b. We bought biscuits for her dog. (4) He saw that gasoline can explode. a. He saw that gasoline container explode. b. He saw that gasoline may explode. (5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes. a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total. b. Each of the fty soldiers shot three wild foxes. (6) He saw her drawing pencils. a. He saw her pencils for drawing. b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms.4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpful iron: strong, brave, hard, determined mole: traitor, betrayal, spy snow: pure, virgin, clean street: homeless, living hard, pitiable 5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory (2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell (3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smell These words are less marked in their sets because they are more usual and tend to be used more frequently. They consist of only one morpheme and are easier to learn and remember than others. They are also often broader in meaning and cannot be described by using the name of another member ofthe same eld.6. homophones: sea-see, break-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace, house homonyms: ear. 7. In a semantic eld, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status. The less marked members of the same semantic eld (1) are usually easier to learn and remember than more marked members; (2) consist of only one morpheme in contrast to more marked members; (3) cannot be described by using the name of another member of the same eld; (4) tend to be used more frequently than more marked terms; (5) broader in meaning than more marked members; (6) are not the result of the metaphorical usage of the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chief b. bull, rooster, drake, ram. The (a) and (b) words are male. The (a) words are human. The (b) words are animals. (2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converse b. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, holler The (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds. The (a) words are normal voice quality. The (b) words are produced by modifying ones normal voice quality. (3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swim b. y, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glide The (a) and (b) words are sports (movement). The (a) words are sports without instruments. The (b) words are sports with instruments. (1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use. (2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations with respect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance. (3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for. (4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation. (5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!” (6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has been developed by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts. In saying “Sorry”, you are performing an act of apology. (7) indirect speech act: an utterance whose literal meaning (location) and intended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt? is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive for action. (8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher Paul Grice whereby those involved in communication assume that both parties will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of 4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner. (9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutors as a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation. This principle requires speakers to “minimize the expression of impolite beliefs”. It is composed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreement and Sympathy. (10) conversational implicature: the use of conversational maxims in the Cooperative Principle to produce extra meaning during conversation. 2. Deictic expressions: I, now, you, that, here, tomorrow.3. Anaphoric expressions: she, him, it.4. (1) He bought the beer. (2) You have a watch.(3) We bought a car.5. Direct acts: (1)/(5); Indirect acts: (2)/(3)/(4) 6. (a) The Maxim of Quality: (1) Do not say what you believe to be false; (2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. (b) The Maxim of Quantity: (1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange); (2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. (c) The Maxim of Relation: Be relevant. (d) The Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous (1) Avoid obscurity of expression; (2) Avoid ambiguity; (3) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity); (4) Be orderly.7. The speaker is particularly careful about the maxim of Agreement in PP. The response begins with “well” rather than “no” in order to minimize disagreement between the speaker and hearer.8. It is an indirect speech act. Carol invites Lara to a party, but Lara wants to decline the invitation. To be polite, she doesnt choose a direct refusal, instead she says “Ive got an exam tomorrow” as a reasonable excuse to decline the invitation. In this way, she minimizes the expression of impolite beliefs, thus the utterance conforms to PP (1) discourse: a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language pro-duced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews. (2) discourse analysis: the study of how sentences in written and spoken language form larger meaning units such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews. (3) given information: the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee.(4) new information: the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee. (5) topic: the main center of attention in a sentence. (6) cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or different parts of a sentence. (7) coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text. (8) discourse marker: the technical term for all the items that are used to help construct discourse, such as signifying the beginning or ending of a paragraph or a turn in conversation. They are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence, such as well, I mean, now, then, rst, second, nally. (9) adjacency pair: a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that “go together” in a adjacency pair: a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that “go together” in a acceptance, criticism/denial. (10) preference structure: in the conversations there can be several second parts related to one rst part, but they are not of equal status. The structural likelihood is called preference, and this likely structure is the preference structure that divides second parts into preferred and dispreferred. The former is the structurally expected and the latter unexpected. In answering the question “Have you got a light?”, the reply “Here you are” is preferred and “Sorry, no, I dont smoke” is dispreferred. (11 presequence: the opening sequences that are used to set up some special potential actions, such as greetings before formal conversations. “What are you doing tonight?” can be used as a presequence if it is followed by “If nothing special, come over and have dinner with us please.” (12) critical discourse analysis: the analysis of language use directed at, and committed to, discovering the concealed ideological bias, injustice, inequality in the power relations among speakers and hearers. 2. In the study of discourse, cohesion refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different parts of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or different parts of a sentence. It concerns the question of how sentences are explicitly linked together in a discourse by different kinds of overt devices. Such cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipses, conjunction and lexical cohesion. 5. It is not a coherent discourse. Although it has connection words such as a Ford a car and black Black, which look like cohesive devices, they refer to entirely different things. There is a total lack of internal relation among the sentences. A text cant be only based on supercial connections between the words to pursue coherence; there must be some relationship that links the meanings of the sentences in a text, too. This text is not in line with our real experience of the way the world is. Thus, we cant make sense of it directly unless we are laborious to create meaningful connections which are not actually expressed by the words and sentences. So its not a coherent discourse.6. Coherence is the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text. This extract is coherent. All the sentences (questions in fact) are organized around the topic “interview”, and they are arranged from the general to the more specic in a logical order so that the text is easy to follow. (1) sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society, that is, how social factors inuence the structure and use of language. (2) standard language: the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language. (3) dialect: a language variety characteristic of a particular social group; dialects can be characteristic of regional, social, temporal, occupational or gender groups. (4) register: a language variety associated with a particular situation of use, e.g. baby talk and legal language. (5) pidgin: a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone, but is learned in contact situations. (6) creole: a language that begins as a pidgin and eventually becomes the rst language of a speech community through its being learned by children. (7) language planning: planning, usually by a government or government agency, concerning choice of national or ofcial language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems. (8) diglossia: a situation when two distinct varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions. (9) bilingualism: the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. (10) code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse. (11) taboo: a word or expression that is prohibited by the polite society from general use. (12) euphemism: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects, e. g. “powder room” for “toilet”.2. Idiolects are varieties of a language used by individual speakers, with peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. 3. A president who did not have an accent may refer to a president who speaks the standard language. The standard language is a particular variety of a language that is ofcially given a status higher than any other, and therefore a dominant or prestigious variety. The standard language is usually based on the speech