英语毕业论文-商务谈判中的语用策略-Pragmatic Strategies in Business Negotiations

外国语学院学生毕业论文题 目 Pragmatic Strategiesin Business Negotiations商务谈判中的语用策略专 业 英 语 班 级学生姓名学 号指导教师ContentsAbstract in English 3 Abstract in Chinese .31. Introduction .41.1Purpose of pragmatic strategies4.1.2Selection of pragmatic strategies.52. Nonverbal pragmatic strategies.62.1 Body language.72.2 Facial expressing.92.2.1 Eye contact92.2.2 Smiling102.3 Silence113. Verbal pragmatic strategies.123.1 Statement technique.133.1.1 Remark opening technique.133.1.2 Statement technique143.2 Asking and answering technique153.2.1 What to ask.153.2.2 When to ask.163.2.3 How to ask .163.2.4 Smart answer.173.3 Persuasion technique.183.4 Listening and judging technique.183.4.1 Listening technique.183.4.2 Judging technique194. Conclusion .19Bibliography.20Acknowledgements.21AbstractLanguage users use different linguistic forms strategically to achieve different communicative intentions. Negotiators use pragmatic strategies to achieve their communicative intentions, and different strategies will lead to different results. This thesis classifies the different pragmatic strategies and analyzes them specifically through examples. This thesis discusses body language, facial expressing, smile, silence and other nonverbal pragmatic strategies and some verbal pragmatic strategies in statement, listening, asking, judging, and persuasion and so on. The author hopes it will provide some practical guidance for the use of pragmatic strategies in business negotiations.Key words: Pragmatic strategies; business negotiations; verbal communication; nonverbal communication摘 要人们使用语言是有策略的,对谈判中语用策略的选择，可以导致不同的谈判结果。本文对可能导致不同后果的语用策略进行了分类并且通过关联理论对商务谈判中语用策略的应用进行系统的分析。本文讨论了肢体语言，面部表情，微笑，沉默等非语言策略，以及语言策略在叙述、听、问、答、辩等方面的一些技巧。力求为商务谈判中语用策略的使用提供一定的实际指导。关键词: 语用策略； 商务谈判； 语言交际；非语言交际.Pragmatic Strategies in Business Negotiations1. Introduction1.1 Purpose of pragmatic strategies Pragmatic strategies, to sum up, have different purposes in negotiations. Strategies in a negotiation can be used to (1) convey the communicative intentions of the negotiators;(2)adjust the atmosphere;(3)take an advantageous negotiating position;(4)avoid negotiating conflicts.Pragmatic strategies can be used to convey the communicative intentions. Different negotiators use different utterances as strategies to convey the communicative intentions. By the use of pragmatic strategies, new information interacts with given information and existing assumptions to create newly established cognitive effects, which indicate the intention .people may use pragmatic strategies consciously or unconsciously, but it will be very helpful for the hearer to discover the intention of the speaker, communicative or non-communicative.Pragmatic strategies can be used to adjust the atmosphere and form a cooperative atmosphere. Negotiating atmosphere is very crucial in negotiation. Negotiators try to be friendly, cooperative and polite to make the negotiation smoothly going. A smile, a polite request or an indirect refusal usually makes sense. Negotiators may use pragmatic strategies to minimize the threats to there faces or avoid FTA, which in turn, will get a positive response.Pragmatic strategies can be used to take an advantages negotiating position, especially in a win-lose strategies may help the negotiators to get more profit than the other party does. The selection of such strategies results from the information asymmetry, In order to keep a long term cooperative relationship, both parties may use the idea of “give and take”, which means to take an advantage to the other party in other aspects.Pragmatic strategies can be used to avoid negotiating conflicts. Negotiating conflicts may lead to a deadlock in a negotiating probably resulting in the failure of the negotiation. By using proper strategies, negotiators may find out the bargaining rang with most of their mutual needs taken into consideration, which helps them to make necessary concessions.1.2 Selection of pragmatic strategies In business negotiations, negotiators do have to select different strategies to meet various needs .Negotiators try to find out the mutual needs and form the bargaining rang in the process of negotiation to reach a prospective agreement. To be efficient in business negotiation during the negotiating stages, each party decides what strategy to adopt, on the other hand, if negotiators fail to care for the opponent sides demands, the negotiating strategies may fail. They turn out to violate the very needs of the other party. In fact; strategy selection is a process of how motivation drives the mind to achieve a certain goal in a negotiation.Aiming at the needs of the negotiators, there types of pragmatic strategies selection are recommended and have proved to be adequate ones (Zhang et al, 2001):(1)Obedience to the needs of the other party .It is the surest way to reach an agreement in a negotiation because the only thing you should consider is the needs of the other party .The selection of verbal strategies such as approbation, approval and acceptance may fall to this category. Nonverbal strategies such as smile can also be used to show obedience. Though it is easy to reach an agreement in a so-called cooperative way, such obedience may lead to a win-lose outcome .The more needs of the other partys you obey, the less profit you will get, for there will be no mercy in a negotiation. The party who has a disadvantageous position in a negotiation may adopt such pragmatic strategies selection to reach an agreement so as to satisfy his basic needs such as needs for security.(2)Violation of the needs of the other party .It is a pragmatic strategy selection adopted by the party who has the advantages position in a negotiation, such as disapproval, criticism, complaints, accusations, challenges, deceptions, and threat. Brom and Levinson (1987) insist that in the context of the mutual vulnerability of face, any rational agent will seek to avoid these face-threatening acts, or will employ certain strategies to minimize the threat. Such a violation may produce two outcomes: a win-lose one ,for one party has to obey the needs of the other party ,and a lose-lose one, for the other party wants to satisfy his own needs and refuses to make any concession.(3)Obedience to the needs of both parties .In order to satisfy the mutual needs of both parties ,the parties will adopt a pragmatic strategy selection to meet a long term cooperative agreement .As we indicated before ,different parties may have different needs and various interests in negotiations .Therefore what one party thinks important and valuable ,may be totally different from what the other party needs is medium quality, lower price and large volume .Therefore, different needs and profits in a negotiation can form a bargaining rang fore the parties to negotiate. And with the needs of both parties considered, it is easier for both sides to make concessions for a win-win outcome .For example a negotiator may use a polite indirect way to refuse the other party, which cares the needs of both sides.2. Nonverbal pragmatic strategies .Psychological studies have concluded that more than 65% of the information exchanged during a face-to face interaction is expressed through nonverbal means (Argyle 1988). It is undoubtedly conceivable that nonverbal strategies play a crucial role in business negotiations, especially by observing the nonverbal language used by the other party, the observer may obtain new information which may strengthen, contradict or combine with the existing assumptions expressed by the use of verbal communication, which, in turn, may help the observing party judge the real communicative intention of the other party.Nonverbal activity is an important dimension of social interaction .Body language, facial expressions such as eye contact and smiling, paralanguage and silence enlarge spoken messages and is very important to social interaction .Hence they can be used as strategies in international business negotiation. The use of the body in interpersonal communication under the name of “Nonverbal Communication”. Nonverbal communications can be classified into two comprehensive categories: body language ,facial expressions, eye contact touch ,smile and paralanguage; those combining with the setting such as space, time ,and silence (Locker,1998).In this thesis, we only discuss some means of the nonverbal communication as strategies used in business negotiations.2.1 Body languagePeople have always known that action communicates .The entire body, including head, arms, hands, fingers, legs and even your posture can be used to convey message on a subconscious level.Many body signals mean anxiety, tension and a lack of confidence. In North America, interviewers and audiences usually respond negatively to nervous gestures such as fidgeting with a tie or jewelry, tapping pencil, or swinging a foot:(1)A: The damage on this article is apparently due to inferior packing. So we lodge a claim with you for the loss.B :( Keep quiet, fidgeting with a pencil)A: I mean, we hope you will arrange for immediate dispatch of replacement at the best price obtainable.Bs body language, fidgeting with a pencil, disclosed his feeling nervous at the conditions of the claim, which was fully utilized by A, who proposed a more rigorous term for claim. A had the existing assumption that B would settle the claim by paying for the loss. Bs fidgeting with a pencil was new information which disclosed Bs intension: he was nervous at rigorous claim terms. Therefore, new information strengthened the existing assumption, forming a new assumption that A might propose a more rigorous term for the claim.Because scholars have suggested that we can make as many as 700,000 distinct physical signs, any attempt at cataloging them would be frustrating and fruitless (Locker, 1998). But here are some of the examples I would like to list in this paper.Across cultures, sometimes the gestures mean the same thing .Then again; some things that we may assume are universally understood may not be .Extending the arm with ones palm up and fingers waving is meant to mean “come here” in some cultures, and “good bye” in others. Extending the arm with the palm down may be universal to connote a persons height, yet in Columbia it is used as a derogatory gesture. Greeting in Asian cultures often involves bowing with respect to status, but in many Western cultures the handshake is appropriate. The exception to the yesno gesture exists in Greece, where nodding emphatically, while raising the hands up to the shoulders means “No!” The Western “OK” gesture of creating a circle with the thumb and index finger is taken to mean “zero” in Laos, and is the symbol of money in Japan and among Arabs, this gesture is usually accompanied by a baring of teeth, and together they signify extreme hostility (Gudykunst Irujo, 1988, Dresser, 1996).Hence in business negotiation, body language can be used to convey meanings, consciously or unconsciously. However, in many cases, nonverbal communication is not used by itself but jointly with verbal communication. For instance, nonverbal signals can be used to underline or reduce the importance of a given sentence or to indicate that the speech is over:(8)A: Todays negotiation will last 12 hours. (A sits quietly and comfortably.)B: Never mind and I can manage it all right. (Bs crossed leg moves up and down quickly.)A adopted the body language with sitting quietly and comfortably, which was used jointly with verbal communication to strengthen the importance and certainty of the sentence. It along with the verbal communication expressed he could endure such a long period of negotiation. Bs unconscious nonverbal communication, which means impatience and tensity, contradicted with his own verbal communication. Hence we may draw a conclusion that B could not bear such a long period of negotiation. In other words, B;s non-communicative intention was disclosed by his body language, which will produce effect to the later process of negotiation.We have to admit that the meanings a given body behavior conveys may very in different countries, even the same body behavior in one country may have different meanings. So when using body language to convey meanings, negotiators have to pay special attention to cultural difference. Try to use proper body language to convey the negotiators communicative intention and try to disclose your non-communicative intention by unconsciously using some certain body language.2.2 Facial ExpressionsFacial expressions are obvious means of nonverbal communications. And they are more easily controlled than any other nonverbal communications; and it is a little difficult to acquire the real emotion and communicative intention by observing only facial expressions. The early Greek playwrights and the Kabuki actors as well as Peking Opera actors were keenly aware of the shifts in mood and meaning that facial expressions convey.2.2.1 Eye ContactThe uses and variation of eye contact also differ from culture to culture (Gudykunst Schnell, 1991), Eye behavior dictates and reflects the nature of a relationship, and helps to monitor feedback from the other party. Lethers(1998) concluded that eye serve six important communication functions(1) indicate degrees of attentiveness, interest, and arousal; (2)influence attitude change and persuasion; (3)regulate interaction; (4)communicate emotions; (5)define power and status relationship ;(6)assume a central role in impression management.Across cultures, eye contact and the use of gazing can change due to social status, age, professionalism, level of respect, etc. North American whites see eye contact as a sign of honesty. But in many other cultures, dropped eyes are a sign of appropriate deference to a superior (GudykunstLocker, 1998). The Japanese are taught to look at the neck. In Korea and China, prolonged eye contact is considered rude. Looking directly into anothers eyes in some communities may be received as a threat, and can lead to conflict. Arabs, Latin Americans, and Southern Europeans focus their eyes on their conversation partners, while East Asians, Indians, and Northern Europeans use a “peripheral gaze” or no eye contact at all. Asian women are traditionally taught to not look men directly in the eyes.Then problems can arise when Westerners attempt to do business with a group of people who believe that it is a sign of discourtesy to make prolonged eye contact with their communication partners. In general, during conversation, people look at each other between 30 and 60 percent of the time .Hence most businessmen find it uncomfortable and unusual to be gazed at by the person doing the talking (Quan at el, 2003).People in the East always avoid eye contact while listening or talking, criticized by the Westerners as a sign of “lack of eyeball contact” which indicates disrespect, dislike, or telling lies. In business negotiation, the hearer ought to look at the speaker to show his concern on the speakers statement; and it is not suitable for the speaker to look always a lot at the hearer when speaking unless they have very close relationship. It is not until the speaker finishes his last sentence can he move his eyes to the hearers, which conveys it is the hearers turn to speak . Then the hearer in turn moves his eyes away from the speaker, and begins his own statement.2.2.2 SmilingThe smile is another emotional display that is rooted in ones culture .The mouth provides the most important nonverbal signals .Some researchers divided the facial expressions into 2 parts: upper part and lower part. In general we nod when we agree, smile when we are pleased, tilt our heads when we are confused, and look at something in which we are interested.According to Zhang et al. (2001), the mouth plays a more crucial role in conveying different feeling, attitudes, and emotions. Everyone smiles, but the amount of smiling, the stimulus that produces the smile and even what the smile is communicating often vary from culture to culture (Locker, 1998). In American, a smile can be a sign of happiness or friendly affirmation while in Japan and China; smile can be used to mask an emotion or to avoid answering questions. Many believe that a smile is a universally involuntary reaction to joy, contentment, or gratification .But researchers have found that a person who holds a lower status position tends to do more smiling than the person he or she is talking to (Quan at al,2003).A Chinese employee once smiled at his boss when criticized by the boss. The boss felt furious and fired him because the boss thought his smile indicated that he did not care the criticism. But the boss did not know that the Chinese always use smile to show they are wrong and feel ashamed of themselves. The same is true at the negotiating table that a Chinese will mask their emotions by the use of smile:(9)(A is an American; B is a Chinese)A: We are sorry to inform you that your last shipment is not up to your usual standard.B (Keep quiet and smiles with embarrassment)A: Dont you think you shall meet our claim for the loss?A misinformed that B s smile ,the new information ,indicated that B was unacceptable to meet the claim for the loss due to Bs last shipment .Hence A fel