现代化的房屋建筑 毕业论文外文翻译.docx

重庆大学本科毕业设计（论文）译文学 院 资源及环境科学学院 专 业 安全工程 姓 名 学 号 20087466 指导教师 指导教师评定成绩(五级制)：指导教师签字： 第二课各种结构结构是建筑物的一部分，它支撑建筑物的重量。对于土木工程师来讲，结构主要是土木工程方面的。同时我们还应该记住，任何建造出的东西都是一种结构。从航空工程师的角度看，飞机也是一种结构。结构可能是一幢住宅、埃及的金字塔、安第斯山脉上的耶稣基督塑像。房屋是带有屋盖的结构。而许多土木工程结构设计是房屋结构设计。房屋作为整体是有建筑师设计的，他别是在人口稠密的地区。一条道路或者一根管道也是一种结构，因为它们都承受载荷。但对于给水工程师、污水处理工程师、市政工程师，结构并非总是他们工作的重要部分。每一项结构设计都包括基础的设计。结构设计本身包含两项不同的任务。第一项是结构设计，确定主要构件的尺寸和位置。第二项是结构分析，用数学方法或图解法或两者相结合的运用。进行分析是为了求出载荷如何在具有特定构件的结构中传递。对于像房屋框架这样的普通结构，已经积累了许多分析方法。因此，设计和分析都比较容易，可能只需要进行一两次。但是对于任何特殊结构，设计和分析的任务就必须重复多次，直到找到一种坚固、稳定和持久的结构的设计为止。成本低廉不包括在设计质量之内，但它很重要，因为造价偏高的结构很可能不被修建。因而设计师的报酬也就少。城市里的典雅型多层次结构，不论是用作办公大楼还是住宅，最重要的结构是楼面。原因有二：一是楼面要在建筑物内重复多次，二是它对房屋的恒载影响最大。实际上，如果假定楼面是唯一的恒载，就可以相当准确的把横在计算出来。这些楼面一般都是钢筋混凝土或预应力混凝土对的。因为它们比钢材或木材耐火性强。火险是高层建筑物需要考虑的重要问题。楼面主要由两种类型：实心楼面和空心（或称密肋）楼面。在密肋楼面中，楼板下半部有一部分是空的，这是一个很大的优点，因为这一部分混凝土并不会加强楼面，而只是增加重量。因此密肋楼面比实心楼面轻。但是，除非事先周密计划，否在要在密肋版中浇灌出空洞就比较困难。悬挂结构是当前最令人感兴趣的内容之一；第一批大型悬挂结构是1966年在伦敦建成的。所有这些结构中，柱子的数量减少了，截面却增大了，这样便可以减少柱子上的曲压效应，同时增加它的有效长度。新近在伦敦落成的两座悬挂结构物中，只有一个方柱位于建筑物中心。这是一个二十米见方的空心混凝土塔，它承受着电梯、楼梯、通道、管道、及电缆的重量。该塔可称为建筑物的核心。在其顶部有一朝四面八方悬伸出的桥台，从桥台上垂下高抗拉强度的钢筋以拉住下面的楼面。这些钢筋很细，可以藏在门框或者窗框里。所以在这种建筑物中。从核心向外的任何方向上，没有明显的障碍挡住视线或妨碍在楼面上活动。第5课水灰比水和灰的比例在混凝土配料中是决定混凝土最终强度的主要因素。有段时期里混凝土配料的规定常用1:2:4的比例。它的意思是以体积为单位，按一份硅酸盐水泥、两份沙、四分砾石混合，然后加入足够的水以获得可用的配料。这一程序完全忽视了水灰比的重要性。这还经常导致出现强度很低的混凝土，因为自然的趋势是添加足够的水使灌注混凝土尽可能容易，所以对工人来说是越湿越好。这种规定混凝土比例的做法已经落伍了，我们不能再效仿了。从理论上讲，3加仑水就能使1立方英尺的水泥完全水化（一袋水泥是一立方一尺整，重量是94磅）。但这一水灰比产生的混合配料会因为硬度太高而无法施工。因此在实际操作中每袋水泥再添加4-8加仑水，以获得更合适的配料。但是，水灰比中水的比例越大，最后混凝土的强度就越低。为了获得合适的配料所需添加的水，随着混凝土的硬化，只会从混凝土中挥发出去，然后在混凝土中留下很多的孔隙。这就是混凝土中总有一些孔隙率的原因。当使用了过多的水时就会产生过多的孔隙，这可能导致混凝土渗漏严重。在冷天气中，如果这些孔隙充满水，它将引起冰冻破坏。因此，作为普遍的规律来说，每袋水泥中使用6加仑水应当是制备混凝土的最大数量。而且使用的水越少，混凝土的强度就越高。无论沙子有多少表面含水量，也都包括在这6加仑水之内，沙子也是混凝土骨料的一部分。骨料骨料分为细骨料和粗骨料：细骨料是由1/4英寸以下的颗粒组成，粗骨料是由1/4以上到5/2英寸之间的颗粒组成。任何一种特定配料的骨料，其最大尺寸主要取决于混凝土浇筑的模板宽度。按一般规律，颗粒的最大尺寸不能超过模板最窄部分的五分之一。水说到水，任何一种适宜饮用的水都适宜拌合混凝土，反之也如此。如果水不适合饮用，它就不适合拌合混凝土。海水也可以使用，但它会使混凝土28天养护期的强度降低约12%。任何一种作为配料的水都不能含有硫酸盐。硫酸盐会侵害混凝土逐渐降低它的强度。第十二课 现代化的房屋建筑 施工前的规划 在进行任何建筑工程之前，必须做出许多决定。要决定设计程序。要选好工地并确定其经济上的可行性。最后，必须做出建筑物的完整设计。这些因素中的每一项都是重要的，而且没有哪一项能脱离其它各项单独考虑。 设计程序 在一项建筑物的功能尚未十分明确之前，往往就决定要修建，就住宅而言，倒不需要多少资料来决定修建与否。但如果是其它建筑物，例如办公楼或零售店，就可能出现一个实际需要如何的问题，因而有可能要进行销路分析（详见下）。需求一旦明确之后，就必须制定出设计和修筑结构的准则。这项程序的第一步是确定建筑物的使用方式它的全面只能和内部各部分面积应起的作用。例如，未来的住户应对住宅提出他们的要求：起居、睡眠、炊事、进餐、卫生间、储藏室以及额外的设计特色如壁炉、镶木板及空调。通常情况下，住宅不需要很全面的规划或研究。未来的房主或住户或许只对建筑师或施工人员描绘一下他的愿望，然后他们就把它变成设计图纸。 办公楼、学校和工业建筑这些比较大的建筑物，便要求较全面的规划。举例来说，建造学校的规划者可能要先尝试确定未来学生的人数，以便决定建筑物的规模。可能要对目前和未来的课程进行分析，然后再拟定专门的设计方案，包括教室、体育馆、图书馆等等。 多数国家里，如果规划中的工程项目是要出售或出租的，在确定它的可行性方面，工程所有者能否以合理的利润售出该项目是个关键。对于多户住房、办公楼、商业用房和部分工业厂房、乃至新市区等项目都要进行销路分析。可以使用简单的方法，也可使用全面而复杂的方法，随建筑物的类型而异。例如在确定住宅工程的销路时，分析人员可能要查明该地区住宅的供应情况、规划中的人口情况、以及未来住户可能得到的收入水平。这样就可以估计出住宅需求的程度和销售价值。通常也对销路竞争的程度进行分析。 场地选择和土地勘测 在完成销路分析之前，必须把工程项目的大致地理位置确定下来。要做出这个决定，就需要专门的资料。通常这类资料都绘制成地图形式。另一种重要的地图附件，是标明了回家、上班或去商业中心的通行区域图。譬如在考虑商业中心时，与未来顾客之间的距离就很重要。而对一般的办公楼工程，就常常需要考虑建筑场地与主要运输路线的距离。 随着销路分析的开展，不同地点的优缺点都考虑到了。最后，某一个地点会比其它地点优先考虑。但一般都推迟到财政可行性的研究深入开展时才最终选定场地。第十五课结构类型建筑物类型建筑物职称重量和荷载的部分称为结构部分。像窗户这样的非承重部分是非结构部分。由于建筑物支撑重量的方式不同，它们分成两大结构类型。这两大结构类型是：1. 框架结构，由框架（或称骨架）职称重量，同时用其它材料把建筑物围护起来。框架结构可以用木材、金属或混凝土制造。2. 实体墙类型，用像混凝土、砖、以及其它砌体类型的固体材料建造厚实的墙，由墙支承建筑物。这类结构可用砖、石、单块混凝土或整体式混凝土砌筑件建造。框架结构类型框架结构比实体墙建筑物更常见。建造框架建筑物就其最广的意义来说，只不过是修建一个支承屋盖和墙的框架。墙附于框架之上，不作为承受荷载部件（或称支承部件）。楼面则悬架在框架和部件之间。这样，框架建筑物有基础和框架来支承建筑物的一切其余部分。框架建筑物的范围从小工具棚到巨型摩天大楼都包括在内。住宅、学校和工厂都可建成框架型。建造房屋框架所用材料包括木材、钢材、铝和混凝土。特殊情况下，其它材料类型也可采用。房屋框架常有一些部分是由两种或两种以上材料建造的，如木材和铝一起使用。实体墙类型许多建筑物是没有框架的。这些建筑物的墙体用某种坚固的材料砌筑，如混凝土、砖、石。这种墙必须坚固结实，以支承楼面和屋盖的荷载。实体墙特别坚固耐久。用砖或泥砌已达数百年甚至数千年之久的墙寿命。古代的实体墙建筑物包括埃及的金字塔、罗马的斗兽场、巴黎圣母院及美国西南部古印第安人的岩屋。不过，用这种方法砌墙既费时又费料。它们要较长时间才能砌成，住在里面也不那么舒服，除非采取特殊措施使墙的内壁保温。实体墙曾用来建造古罗马骑士居住的寒冷的石堡。数百年来，这些古堡一直以其寒冷透风著称。骑士过去经常将壁毯挂在墙上使屋子更暖和一些。但是现在情况有了许多改观。虽然有时候仍然用坚石砌墙，人们已经掌握了其它更为优秀的方法。混凝土块材常被用来砌墙，因为它们易于砌筑，重量比石块轻。为了美观起见，混凝土块材上再用砖或者石材镶面。混凝土也广泛用于现代的实体墙。筑墙的时候就把所有的窗洞和门洞留出来了。现代的实体墙和几百年前的古堡一样冷。不过人们用不着挂壁毯来保暖了。墙的内壁上钉上木条。木条之间放上保暖层，上面罩以护墙板内壁或者干砌墙。保温层与单纯在石壁上挂壁毯相比是大为改进的保温方法。附原文：lesson 2structures a structure is the part of a building that carries its weight. for civil engineers, structures are most of civil engineering. we should also remember that anything built is a structure. from an aeroplane engineers point of view, an aeroplane also is a structure. a structure may be a dwelling house, a pyramid in egypt, or the statue of christ on the andes. a building is a structure with a roof. and much of civil engineering structural design is the design of building structures. the building as a whole is designed by an architect, particularly in a densely populated area. a road or a pipe is also a structure since both carry loads. but for water engineers, structures are not always an important part of their work. every structural design includes the foundation design. the structural design itself includes two different tasks. the first task is the design of the structure, in which the size and the locations of the main membership are decided. the second is the analysis of this structure by mathematical or graphic methods of both. the analysis is made to work out how the loads will pass through the structure with the particular members chosen. for a common structure such as a building frame, many methods have been developed for analysis. therefore, the design and analysis will be relatively easy and may need to be performed only once or twice. but for any unusual structure the tasks of design and analysis will have to be repeated many times until a design has been found for a structure that is strong, stable and lasting. cheapness does not enter into the quality of the design though it is important since a costly structure will probably not be built and the designers fee will therefore be smaller. for the typical multi-story structure in a city, whether it is to be used for offices or dwellings, the most important member is the floor. there are two reasons for this. one is that the floor is repeated many times within the building. secondly, it has the greatest effect on the dead load of the building. the dead load, in fact, can be very calculated by assuming that the floors are the only dead load. these floors are generally of reinforced or prestressed concrete because their fire resistance is better than steel or wood. the risk of a fire is an important consideration for a tall building. there are two main types of floors: the solid floor and the hollow-tiled (or ribbed ) floor. in the ribbed floor , part of the lower half of the slab is hollow, a great advantage because the additional concrete would not strengthen the floor but would add weight. therefore, ribbed floors are lighter than solid floors. however, it is more difficult to make holes through them unless these holes are carefully planned beforehand. suspended structures are among the most interesting at the moment; the first large ones were uncompleted in london on 1966. in all these structures, the columns are made fewer and larger so as to reduce the buckling effects on them and to increase their effective length. in two that were recently built in london, there is only one column in the center of the building. and this is a a hollow concrete tower some 12 m square. it carries the lifts, stairs, ducts, pipes, and cables. the tower may be called the core of the building. and on its top is a bridge over-hanging in all directions, from which high-tensile steel bars drop to carry the floors below. these bars are very thin and can be hidden in a door frame or window frame. as a result, for such a building there is no noticeable obstruction to sight or horizontal movement in any direction outwards from the core.lesson 5mixing concretewater-cement ratiothe ratio of water to cement in a batch of concrete is the principal determinant of the concretes final strength. at one time the instructions for preparing a batch of concrete would have contained proportions such as 1:2:4.they would have indicated that 1 part of portland cement to 2 parts of sand to 4 parts of gravel by volume were to be mixed together, after which sufficient water was to be added to obtain a workable mixture. this procedure ignored entirely the importance of the water-cement ratio. it also resulted very often in the preparation of a very weak concrete, since the natural tendency is to add enough water to make placement of the concrete as easy as possiple-the sloppier the better, as far as the workmen are concerned. this manner of specifying the proportions of concrete is obsolete and should never be followed.in theory, it takes only 3 gal of water to hydrate completely 1 cu ft of cement.(a sack of cement contains 1 cu ft exactly, and the sack weighs 94 1b.). but this water-cement ratio produces a mixture that is too stiff to be worked. in practice, therefore, additional water, between 4 and 8 gal per sack of cement, is used to obtain a workable mixture.but the greater the proportion of water in a water-cement ratio, the weaker the final concrete will be. the additional water that is necessary to achieve a workable batch will only evaporate from the concrete as the concrete as the concrete sets. and it will leave behind in the concrete innumerable voids. this is the reason there will always be some porosity in concrete. but when an excessive amount of water has been used, there will be an excessive number of voids, which may cause the concrete to leak badly. if these voids should be filled with moisture is contained in the sand that is part of the aggregate.aggregate aggregate is divided into fine aggregate, which consists of all particles 14 in. and less in size, and coarse aggregate, which consists of everything else up to roughly 52 in. in size. the maximum size of the coarse aggregate in any particular mix depends mainly on the width of the forms into which the concrete is to be poured. as a general rule, the largest size particles should not exceed one-fifth the distance across the narrowest part of the forms.water as far as the water, any water that is good enough to drink is good for mixture concrete. the converse is also true. if water isnt good enough to drink, it isnt good enough for mixing concrete. seawater can be used, but it will decrease the 28-day strength of the concrete by about 12 percent. one group of substances water should never contain are sulfates. sulfates will attack the concrete and will gradually reduce its strength. lesson 12modern building constructionpreconstruction planningbefore any building project can be undertaken, numerous decisions must be made. the design program must be resolved. the site must be chosen and economic feasibility determined. finally, a completed design for the building must be made. each of these elements is important; none can be considered in isolation of the others.design programmingfrequently a decision is made to construct a building before much has been determined about its function. in the case of a residence, little information is needed to make the decision to build. in the case of other buildings, such as offices or retail stores, questions of actual need may arise, and a market analysis (see below) may be performed. once need has been determined, it is necessary to develop guidelines for designing and building the structure. the first step in this process is to determine how the building is to be used-its overall function and the purposes various spaces within it must serve. in a residence, for example, the potential occupant must determine his needs: living, sleeping, food preparation, dining, bathroom, storage areas and special design features, such as fireplace, wood paneling, and air conditioning. typically, a residence does not require very comprehensive programming or study. the potential owner or occupant may do nothing more than describe his desires to an architect or builder, who then translates them into design sketches.larger buildings, such as offices, schools, and industrial buildings, require more comprehensive programming. school planners, for example, may attempt to project future student population in order to determine the size of the building. present and future curricula may be analyzed before a specific design program, including classrooms, gymnasium, library, etc. , is drawn up.in most countries, if a project under development is to be sold or leased, the ability of the owner to market the project at a reasonable return will be critical in determining the projects feasibility. marketing analysis is undertaken for projects such as multifamily housing, office, commercial, and selected industrial buildings, and even new towns. the method used can be either simple or comprehensive and complex. the approach will vary with the type of construction. in determining the market for a housing project, for example, analysts may examine the supply of housing in the area, projected population and employment, and the levels of income expected by future residents. in this way both the extent and market value of housing demand can be estimated. the extent of market competition is usually also analyzed.site selection and land acquisitionbefore the market analysis can be completed, there must be a decision on the approximate geographic location of the project. to make this decision, specific information is needed. this kind of information is typically obtained and organized in map form. another important map tool is a diagram showing areas of accessibility to home, to work, or to a shopping centre. in a project such as a general office building, the distance of the site from major transportation lines is usually a consideration.as the market analysis progresses, various site advantages and disadvantages can be considered. finally, one site is given priority over others under consideration. final site selection is generally delayed until the financial feasibility study is well underway.lesson 15structural typesthe part of the building that holds up the weight and load is called the structural part. parts, such as windows, that do not hold up the building are the non-structural parts. buildings fall into two very broad, structural types because of the different ways that buildings are made to hold up weight. these types are:1. frame structures, where a frame, or skeleton, holds up the weight and other materials are used to close the building up. frame structures can be made of wood, metal, or concrete.2. mass wall types, where solid materials such as concrete, brick, and other types of masonry are used to build heavy walls that hold up the building. this type can be made of brick, stone, and separate concrete and monolithic concrete parts.frame structural typesframe structures are built more often than mass wall buildings. making a frame building in its broadest sense is simply making a frame that holds up the roof and the walls. the walls are added to the frame and do not act as load-bearing, or supporting, parts. the floors are suspended between the frame parts. in this manner the frame building has a foundation and the frame to hold up all the other parts of the building. frame buildings range from small tool sheds to giant skyscrapers. homes, schools, and factories may all be made with frames. the types of materials used to make the frames for buildings include wood, steel, aluminum, and concrete. other types of materials may also be used under special conditions. building frames often have parts made of two or more types of materials such as wood and aluminum, mixed together.mass wall types many buildings are made without frames. the walls of these buildings are made of some strong substance such as concrete, bric