学术英语conclusion结论的写作.ppt

1、A,1,Conclusion,In your conclusions, address the following: reach conclusions about the initial objectives show advantages of your method over previously published methods state open problems identify needed next steps in research on the problem,A,2,common problem in writing a concluding paragragh,1.

2、 Too long. The conclusion section should be short. Often the conclusion section is as little as 2.5% of an entire piece of published research. 2. Too much detail. Conclusions that are too long often have unnecessary detail. The conclusion section is not the place for details about your methodology o

3、r results. Although you should give a summary of what was learnt from your research, this summary should be short, since the emphasis in the conclusions section is on the implications, evaluations, etc. that you make.,A,3,3. Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues. Whereas in the intro

4、duction your task was to move from general (your field) to specific (your research), in the concluding section your task is to move from specific (your research) back to general (your field, how your research will affect the world). In other words, in the conclusion you should put your research in c

5、ontext. 4. Failure to reveal the complexities of a conclusion or situation. Negative aspects of your research should not be ignored. Problems, drawbacks etc. can be included in summary in your conclusion section as a way of qualifying your conclusions (i.e. pointing out the negative aspects, even if

6、 they are outweighed by the positive aspects).,common problem in writing a concluding paragragh,A,4,common problem in writing a concluding paragragh,5. Lack of a concise summary of what was learned. In order to be able to discuss how your research fits back into your field of study (and the world at

7、 large) you need to summarize it very briefly. Often the summary is only a few sentences. 6. Failure to match the objectives of the research. Often research objectives change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and rewrite your original objecti

8、ves in your introduction so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research (not what you thought you might accomplish when you began).,A,5,exercise,Here is an example of an objective and conclusion that do not match: Objective: The main objective of this study was t

9、o assess the impact of road building on villages on rural communities. Conclusion: The model produced in this study can accurately predict the social and economic impact of road-building on villages in southwest China. If we rewrite the objective to match what we actually did (we developed a model),

10、 it will fit the conclusion: Rewritten objective: The main objective of this study was to develop a model to predict the social and economic impact of road-building on rural communities.,A,6,warning,1. Dont depend on your conclusion to sum up the body paragraphs. Your paragraphs should flow naturall

11、y into one another and connections should be made among them. Summary can be an important function of conclusions but keep this part brief; avoid repeating, word-for-word, a statement you have made earlier in the paper. 2. Dont simply repeat your introduction. Try to talk about your topic in a new w

12、ay. The tone of your conclusion is different because the reader has finished your paper. 3. Dont end your conclusion with a quotation or with a statement that could very well be the subject of another paper. The former deflects attention away from you as writer and thinker; the latter deflects atten

13、tion from what youre saying in your paper. It is ok to quote, but it is better to add a comment of your own to end on. This shows that you are in control to the very end.,A,7,warning,4. Dont use clichs or an overly sentimental or obvious statement. The former sound good but mean nothing; the latter

14、will weaken rather than strengthen your essay. 5. Dont introduce new arguments, evidence, or details in your concluding paragraph. It is not place to introduce ideas you forgot to mention in the body of the paper. Never make a claim in your conclusion that is unsubstantiated or even unmentioned anyw

15、here else. New material may enter a conclusion occasionally, but it must be closely related to everything else you have said. 6. Dont apologize for doing a poor job of resenting the material. This will ruin your effort. Strategies for writing a conclusion,A,8,Suggestions,1. Answer questions. Strive

16、for answers to the questions readers logically raise-Why are you telling me this? Why do you think I need to understand your main point? Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful. Point out the importance or the implications of what youve jus

17、t said on an area of societal concern is perhaps a bit more dramatic. 2. Synthesize, dont summarize. Dont simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points your made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.,A,9,Suggestions,3. Re

18、direct your readers. Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the real world. Place the paper in a larger context. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. For analytical papers in parti

19、cular, you could mention the lack of conclusion in the field. This demonstrates that you understand the complexity of the subject matter. 4. Create a new meaning. You dont have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new pictur

20、e. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.,A,10,Strategies,1. Echoing the introduction: Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay

21、 was helpful in creating a new understanding. Example Introduction From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of A

22、dventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults. Conclusion I thought I would sp

23、end a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents arms as we wa

24、ited for the parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.,A,

25、11,Strategies,2. Challenging the reader and call for action: By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives. Example Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting ex

26、perience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of Americas attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.,A,12,Strategies,3. Looking to th

27、e future or to a wider context Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally. Example Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildi

28、ngs and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.,A,13,Strategies,4. P

29、osing questions: Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning. Example: Campaign advertisements should

30、 help us understand the candidates qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed e

31、lectorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?,A,14,Conclusion,In your conclusions, address the following: reach conclusions about the initial objectives show advantages of your method over previously published methods state open problems identify n

32、eeded next steps in research on the problem,A,15,论文的结论部分,1 结论的内容 2 写作要点 3 写作要求 4 写作时态,A,16,结论又称结束语、结语。是最终的总体的概括，也可写建议、对策、设想，或提出研究中发现的尚待解决的问题。它是在理论分析和实验验证的基础上，通过严密的逻辑推理而得出的富有创造性、指导性、经验性的结果描述。它又以自身的条理性、明确性、客观性反映了论文或研究成果的价值。结论与引言相呼应，同摘要一样，其作用是便于读者阅读和为二次文献作者提供依据。,A,17,一般来说可以归纳为以下几点： 1、归纳性说明研究结果或发现 2、结论性

33、说明结果的可能原因、机理或意义 3、前瞻性说明未解决的问题,A,18,有总结和小结之分。 小结文稿篇幅短，内容少、简单，多用于原著论文或短文的正文之后，它只用较少的文字将全文报告的主要内容写出来。内容包括主要的结果、结论、数据，目的在于阐明本文的成果和理论。 总结的内容和篇幅较小结为多，多用于综述或讨论类文稿之后，起着概括主题的作用。从内容上说需将全文已论述的问题再扼要概括一遍，作者还可以发表自己的见解和观点。,A,19,A,20,通常情况下，有关结论的内容都包括在“结果与讨论”或“讨论”中，但有时也可将“结论”单独列为一节。在“结论”中作者应清楚、简洁地叙述自己研究的主要认识或论点，其中包括

34、最重要的结果、结果的重要蕴含、对结果的说明或认识等。,A,21,应注意的是，撰写结论时不应涉及前文不曾指出的新事实，也不能在结论中重复论文中其他章节中的句子，或者叙述其他不重要或与自己研究没有密切联系的内容，以故意把结论拉长。,A,22,结论不是研究结果的简单重复，而是对研究结果更深入一步的认识，是从正文部分的全部内容出发，并涉及引言的部分内容，经过判断、归纳、推理等过程，将研究结果升华成新的总观点。其内容要点如下： 1）本研究结果说明了什么问题，得出了什么规律性的东西，解决了什么理论或实际问题； 2）对前人有关本问题的看法作了哪些检验，哪些与本研究结果一致，哪些不一致，作者做了哪些修正、补充

35、、发展或否定；,1 结论的内容,A,23,3）本研究的不足之处或遗留问题。 对于某一篇论文的“结论”，上述要点1）是必需的，而2）和3）视论文的具体内容可以有，也可以没有；如果不可能导出结论，也可以没有结论而进行必要的讨论。 结论段的格式安排可作如下考虑： 如果结论段的内容较多，可以分条来写，并给以编号，如1），2），3）等，每条成一段，包括几句话或1句话；如果结论段内容较少，可以不分条写，整个为一段，几句话。 结论里应包括必要的数据，但主要是用文字表达，一般不再用插图和表格。,A,24,16. Conclusion This paper presented the results of in

36、itial research into the development of more effective mine safety rules and regulations. Responses from almost 500 mineworkers were analyzed and some simple guidelines established, in particular, regarding rule content. They can be summarized as:,A,25,(a) Management and regulators should not continu

37、e to produce more and more rules and regulations to cover every aspect of mining. Miners will not read nor comprehend to this level of detail.,A,26,(b) Detailed prescriptive regulations, detailed safe work procedures, and voluminous safety management plans will not connect with a miner. The aim shou

38、ld be to operate with a framework of fewer rules but of the highest quality. (c) Of course, achieving more effective rules and regulations is not the only answer to a safer workplace. Possibly less emphasis should be on content and more about the process.,A,27,(d) In particular, ensuring that a posi

39、tive safety culture exists and that communication channels are open and working well. This was confirmed in the survey when the expressions simply bad rules or poor rules were rarely blamed for accidents and incidents, risk taking or error-making. (e) It was more the problems of implementation, comm

40、unication, and learning that were the main causal factors.,A,28,2 写作要点,写作的要点：内容精炼，观点严谨；正面阐述观点，说明与他人不同之处，不反驳、不指责（指正）、更不攻击。 （1）对结果的解释要重点突出，简洁、清楚。为有效地回答研究问题，可适当简要地回顾研究目的并概括主要结果，但不能简单地罗列结果，因为这种结果的概括是为讨论服务的。,A,29,（2）推论要符合逻辑，避免实验数据不足以支持的观点和结论。根据结果进行推理时要适度，论证时一定要注意结论和推论的逻辑性。在探讨实验结果或观察事实的相互关系和科学意义时，无需得出试图去解

41、释一切的巨大结论。如果把数据外推到一个更大的、不恰当的结论，不仅无益于提高作者的科学贡献，甚至现有数据所支持的结论也受到怀疑。,A,30,（3）观点或结论的表述要清楚、明确。尽可能清楚地指出作者的观点或结论，并解释其支持还是反对早先的工作。结束讨论时，避免使用诸如“Future studies are needed.”之类苍白无力的句子。,A,31,（4）对结果科学意义和实际应用效果的表达要实事求是，适当留有余地。避免使用“For the first time”等类似的优先权声明。在讨论中应选择适当的词汇来区分推测与事实。例如，可选用“prove”，“demonstrate”等表示作者坚信观点

42、的真实性；选用“show”，“indicate”，“found”等表示作者对问题的答案有某些不确定性；选用“imply”，“suggest”等表示推测；或者选用情态动词“can”，“will”，“should”，“probably”，“may”，“could”，“possibly”等来表示论点的确定性程度。,A,32,3 写作的要求,撰写的结论应达到如下要求： 1）概括准确：措词严谨。结论是论文最终的、总体的总结，对论文创新内容的概括应当准确、完整，不要轻易放弃，更不要漏掉一条有价值的结论，但也不能凭空杜撰。措词要严谨，语句要像法律条文那样，不能模棱两可，含糊其词。肯定和否定要明确，一般不用“

43、大概”、“也许”、“可能是”这类词语。,A,33,2）明确具体，简短精练。结论段有相对的独立性，专业读者和情报人员可以只看摘要和（或）结论而能大致了解论文反映的成果和成果的价值，所以结论段应提供明确、具体的定性和定量的信息。对要点要具体表述，不能用抽象和笼统的语言。可读性要强，如一般不单用量符号，而宜用量名称，比如，说“T与呈正比关系”不如说“温度与压力呈正比关系”易读。语言要锤炼，删去可有可无的词语。,A,34,3）不作自我评价。论文的真正价值是通过具体“结论”来体现的，不宜用如“本研究具有国际先进水平”、“本研究结果属国内首创”、“本研究结果填补了国内空白”一类语句来作自我评价。,A,35

44、,4写作时态,根据具体内容而定。论述所做的研究工作通常用一般过去时；论述普遍现象通常用一般现在时有时也用一般过去时 Conclusions 简述研究内容强调实验结果，跟Abstract 可能有部分重复。 与Abstract的区别是Abstract 也要强调研究内容以叙事为主的风格,A,36,1过去时 （1）涉及本研究的内容 （2）涉及他人研究过程的内容 （3）作者认为只适用于本研究环境和条件的结论,A,37,2现在时 （1）指示性说明 （2）普遍接受的思想、理论或结论 （3）作者认为本研究结论具有普遍意义 （4）前瞻性说明,A,38,结论部分常用句型 1结果提示：These results s

45、uggest that 举例：These data confirm the presence of at least two major HCV genotypes in Nigeria.,A,39,2结果支持或反对某种观点： These results support the idea that；These results fail to support the idea that 举例：These results do not support the idea that treatment to lower cholesterol concentration cause mood dist

46、urbance.,A,40,3表示观点的确定或不确定性： There is no evidence that； It is likely/unlikely that 举例：There is no evidence that NIDDM produce any change in bone metabolism or mass.,A,41,4具有意义： Be of great (some/little/no) clinical significance into 举例：The detection of p53 gene is of great clinical significance in t

47、umor diagnosis.,A,42,5前瞻性说明： remain to be further studied；It is remains to be proved that 举例：However, the relation of insulin resistance to hypertension remains to be further studied.,A,43,6插入语： This is the first case of pancreas divisum. 举例：This is the first case, to our knowledge, of pancreas divi

48、sum.,A,44,This work represents one of the few available studies on smolder ignition. The results show a strict requirement for igniting a self-sustaining forward smoldering reaction of a porous combustible such as open-cell, unrewarded polyurethane. The ignition behavior is primarily determined by t

49、he igniter power, time of power input, and fuel-igniter interface temperature. The magnitude of these parameters can be modeled by the solution of the energy equation describing the smolder process.,A,45,The experimental results show a minimum energy and temperature requirement for a given input hea

50、t ux to initiate a self-sustaining smolder front. A smolder ignition diagram with a well dened boundary between the ignition and no-ignition regimes has been developed with the results of these experiments. With input powers ranging from 30 to 100 W, self-sustaining smolder reactions were ignited on the order of 1000 s.,A,46,The smolder characteristics of temperature, velo