从称谓语看中西文化差异

ContentsTOC\o"1-2"\h\uChineseAbstract 2EnglishAbstract 31.Introduction 41.1AGeneralDescriptionofAppellation 41.2KinshipAppellation 51.3SocialAppellation 51.4TheFunctionofAppellation 52.ContrastiveAnalysisofKinshipAppellation 62.1ClassificationofKinshipAppellation 62.2DifferencesofKinshipAppellationbetweenEastandWest 62.3CulturalReasonsfortheseDifferences 83.ContrastiveAnalysisofSocialAppellation 103.1CommonComponentsofSocialAppellations 103.2DifferencesofSocialAppellationsbetweenEastandWest 113.3CulturalReasonsfortheseDifferences 124.Conclusion 14References 15从称谓语看中西文化差异摘要语言是文化交流最基本的方式。称谓语是人们平常生活中使用较广泛的语言，称谓语的使用是否得体，关系到人际交往能否顺利进行，关系到人际关系能否更好地维系与发展。由于文化传统、社会制度、历史风俗等的不同，汉语和英语在称谓体系上存在较大差异。本文运用比较研究方法，从亲属称谓和社交称谓两方面比较中西称谓体系的异同，进而分析造成这些差异的文化因素。与英语称谓系统相比，汉语称谓系统更加复杂、严谨、名目繁多。这一现象的产生与中西文化中等级制度，礼仪规范、伦理道德、价值取向等方面存在的巨大差异密不可分。关键词：称谓语；中西文化；文化差异DifferencesbetweenChineseandWesternCultureBasedontheAnalysisofAppellationAbstractLanguageisthemostbasicunitofculturalcommunication.Appellationisthelanguagewidelyusedinpeople'sdailylife.Whethertheappellationisappropriateornotisrelatedtothesmoothprogressofinterpersonalcommunicationandbettermaintenance.Duetothedifferencesinculturaltraditions,histories,customsandsocialsystems,Chineseandwesterncountrieshavegreatdifferencesintheappellationsystem.Byusingthecomparativemethod,thispaperemphasizesthedifferencesbetweenChina’sappellationandwesternappellation,andthenanalyzestheculturalfactorsthatcausethesedifferences.Differentfromthewesternappellationsystem,Chineseappellationsystemismorecomplicatedandprecise,whichiscloselyrelatedtothedramaticdifferencesinhierarchy,etiquette,ethics,valueorientationandotheraspectsinChineseandWestculture.Keywords:appellation;Chinese-Westernculture;cross-culturaldifferences1.Introduction1.1AGeneralDescriptionofAppellationAppellation,accordingtotheModernChineseDictionary,isdefinedas:namesgiventopeoplebytheirrelationsandoccupations,etc.Thespecificwayofappellationdependsonmanyfactorssuchasculture,society,education,belief,ageandgenderetc.Eachappellationhasitsuniquesystemandcharacteristics,sotheChina’sappellationsystemiscomparativelydifferentfromthewesternappellationsystem.Fromtheperspectiveofcross-culturalcommunication,thispapermakesacomparisonbetweenEnglishandChinesedailyappellationsandprobesintothesocialandculturalfactorsreflectedbythedifferences.Insocialcommunication,peoplealwaysaddresseachotherinsomeformofspeech.Appellationhasasignificantsocialfunction:itistheidentificationofthestatusandroleoftheaddressee,andplaysaroleinmaintainingandstrengtheningvariousinterpersonalrelationships.(现代汉语词典,1984)Appellation,asaproductofhumansocialandculturallife,isinfluencedbyvariousfactorssuchassocialsystemchanges,nationalpsychologicalcharacteristics,traditionalculture,socialcustoms,socialethicsandmorality,thinkingmode,andhasstrongnationalculturalcharacteristics.Anyethnicgroupintheworldhasitsownuniqueappellationsystem,butduetotheculturalbackgroundandotheraspectsofthedifferences,thenumberofethnicappellationwordstaketheirownculturecharacteristicsasareference.IntraditionalChineseculture,thefeudalideologyheldthatthestatusbetweenpeople,howeverthewesternsocietyvaluesthenatureofpeoplethemselves,whichcontributestodiversitiesbetweenChineseandwesternsocietiesintermsofappellation.Somescholarsarguethataddressforms,whichcanalsobecalledappellations,arethewordsspeakersusetodesignatethepersontheyaretalkingtowhiletheyaretalking.(Ralph,2000)Butotherscholarsthinkthattheso-calledaddresspredicateisusedtoexpressthesocialinterpersonalrelationshipbetweenpeople,itreflectsthestatusofpeopleinthesocietyandtheroleoftheuseofthename.Appellationisindispensableinverbalcommunicationandisthefirststageofopencommunication.(崔希亮,1996,(2))Theextensiveselectionofappellationindifferentculturesfullyreflectstheinteractionbetweenlanguageuseandsocialrelations.Inordertoexpresstheconceptofsocialgroup'suniversalexistence,thetwopartiesofcommunicationinevitablycomplywithspecificsocialrulesandchooseappropriateappellation,soastodetermineeachother'ssocialstatusandrepresentdifferentinterpersonalrelationships.Fromthispointofview,thestudyofappellationsysteminlanguagehasprofoundsociolinguisticinfluence,andhasthefoundationofcross-culturalcomparison.Thegeneralideaistodivideappellationintotwopartsaccordingtotheuseofappellation,thatis,kinshipappellationandsocialappellation.Appellationcanbedividedintotwotypes:kinshipappellationandsocialappellation,whicharethecommontypecharacteristicsofappellationcustomsinmostoftheworld'sethniclanguages.(曲彦斌,1996)1.2KinshipAppellationThekinshipappellationappearedwhenhumanbeingsbrokeawayfromtheprimitivesocietyandestablishedthefamilyform.Withtheprogressofcivilizationandsociety,theappellationsystemhasbeengraduallyimprovedandstrengthened.Linguisticallyspeaking,kinshipappellationiscomposedofkinshipformandappellation.Therefore,asfarastheliteralmeaningisconcerned,itiseasytounderstandthedefinitionofkinshipappellation,thatis,akindofaddressusedtoexpresstherelationshipbetweenrelatives.Fromtheperspectiveofsociology,theconceptofkinshipisformedonthebasisofmarriageandfamily,sothekinshipappellationisthereflectionofmarriageandfamilyform.1.3SocialAppellationAmericansocialpsychologistsRogerBrownandAlbertGilmangeneralizedtwobasicsemanticrelationsofpronounreciprocal,thatis,powerandsolidaritythroughtheinvestigationofthemainlanguagesystemsinEurope.(R.Brown&A.Gilman,1985)Basedontheirresearch,wecandividesocialappellationsintotwocategories:reciprocaladdressingandnonreciprocaladdressing.Thereciprocaladdressingrevealsthatbothpartiesincommunicationadoptthesameaddressforms,forexample,callingeachotherbytheirfirstnamestoestablishanequalrelationship.Thelatter,ontheotherhand,isdifferent.Forexample,onepartycallstheotherpartybyhis/herfirstname,whiletheotherpartycallsbyhis/hertitleandlastname.Thisdifferencereflectsthesocialstatusrelationshipbetweenthem,thatis,astrictrelationshipbetweensuperiorandsubordinate.Fromappellations,wecananalyzethepower,solidarity,familiarity,occupationandevengenderofbothsidesincommunication.1.4TheFunctionofAppellationIninterpersonalcommunication,thefunctionofappellationbasicallyincludesthreeaspects:first,itisbeneficialtobilateralcommunication;second,appellationformsactasaddressesforthespeaker;third,appellationformsactasaddressesforthelistener.Appellationnotonlycontainslinguisticphenomena,butalsoreflectsculturalphenomena.Somecomplicatedformsofappellationreflecttheirculturalconnotations.Differentnationalitieshavedifferentappellationsystems.Eachformofappellationistheoutcomeofsocialcommunication,whichnotonlyoccupiesanimportantpositioninhumancommunication,butalsoprovidesimportantcognitiveconditionsforthepersonalrelationshipbetweenbothpartiesofcommunication.Thefunctionofappellationincludesmaintainingthesmoothnessofcommunicationandtheclarityofmeaningexpression,andacceleratinginformationtransmission.Specifically,thefunctionofappellationhasfivecharacteristics:(1)Appellationshelpbuildanewrelationship;(2)Appellationshelptomaintainoldrelationships;(3)Appellationsconveytheidentityandstatusofthepersonbeingaddressed;(4)Appellationexpressestheemotiontotheaddressee;(5)Appellationscanreflectthechangingtimes.2.ContrastiveAnalysisofKinshipAppellation2.1ClassificationofKinshipAppellationThereareonlytwowaystoaddressrelatives,nomatterwhatsocialbackgroundstheyhave.Oneisbasedonheirs,theotherisbasedonfamilyrelationship.Sothemeaningofkinshipappellationisdeterminedbythekinshiptheyreflectandthecontextinwhichtheyareused.Kinshipisauniversalrelationshipthateveryoneinanycountryorsocietyhas,suchasmother,father,husband,andson.Thisisacommonfeatureofhumankinshipappellations.Solongasitisusedtoindicatekinshiporaname,kinshipappellationreflectstheactualkinship.InChina,mostscholarsclassifykinshipvocativeexpressionintokinshipappellationsanddividethemintobloodrelativesandin-lawsrelationship.However,regionalandculturaldifferencesmaketheclassificationofkinshipappellationcomplicated.AccordingtoMurdoch,anAmericanscholar,theChinesekinshipappellationsystememphasizestheimportanceofmaleandfemaleheirs,whichcreatesanunequalstatebetweenthepaternalkinshipsystemandmatrilinealkinshipsysteminappellationsystem.Butinwesterncountries,theappellationsystememphasizesthestatusofthenuclearfamily,afamilyconsistingofparentsandtheirunmarriedchildren.Therefore,thenuclearfamilyoccupiestheprimarypositioninthewholekinshipsystem,whichinevitablyleadstotheweakeningofotherkinshiprelationswhichispronetochange.SomescholarsalsobelievethatkinshipappellationinChinacanbesortedintotwocategories:kinshipappellationandrelativesappellationterms,thatis,allmembersofsocietyareregardedasrelativesandmembersofsocietyareaddressedbykinshipappellation.Theformerreferstoappellationsthatcanonlybeusedbetweenrelatives,whilethelatterdenotesappellationsthatcanbeusedoutsideone’sfamily.Forexample,neighbors,friendsandcolleagues,everyonecanusekinshiptitletoaddressstrangers.InChina,itisnaturaltoaddressstrangersbyusingkinshiptitle.Suchasaddressingtheelderlyas“老大哥”,maleas“大哥”andsoon.ThiskindofappellationformhastheHannationalitycharacteristicwhichextendstheconceptofkinshipintothesocialcommunication.2.2DifferencesofKinshipAppellationbetweenEastandWestOneofthemajordifferencesbetweenChineseandwesternappellationisthat,inChina,kinshipappellationcanbealsousedtoaddressnon-relativesorevenstrangersinsocialactivities.Thesekinshipappellationsshowmanyvariationsaccordingtodifferentsocialcontext.Forexample,whenyouwanttoshowrespectforaperson,youcancallhim/her~哥,~姐.Therearealsosubdivisionsfordifferentagegroups,like~叔,~姨.Itcanbesaidthatthephenomenonofusingkinshipappellationstoaddressnon-relativesorstrangersisverycommoninChina.Chinesetraditionalnationalcultureregardstheorderofageasthepriority.Thespeakercanchoosethecorrespondingkinshipappellationaccordingtotheagegapbetweenhimselfandtheaddressee.Incontrast,itisagainstwesterncustomtoaddresspeopleotherthanrelativesasrelatives.InBritain,forexample,peopleusuallycalltheirfriends'siblingsbytheirfirstnamesorbytheform“Mr./Mrs.+surname”.Inreallife,ifsomeonesays,A’sbrothermarriesB’ssister.ThissentenceisnoteasytotranslateintoChinesewithoutmorespecificinformation.Becausewedon'tknowwhetherA'sbrotherisolderthanTom,andlikewise,whetherB'ssisterisolderthanJohn.Therefore,therearehugedifferencesbetweenwesternandChina’skinshipappellationinexpression.Chinesehasmanywordstoexpresskinshipappellation,whileEnglishhasrelativelyfew.IntheEnglishlanguagesystem,theappellationofthemembersofthenuclearfamilyismoredetailed,suchastheparents,brothers,sistersanddaughters.Theyallhavetheirspecialappellations.Butfamilymemberslikeuncleandauntcanbesummedupinoneword.Itcanbeseenthatwesterncountriesplacegreateremphasisonthenuclearfamily.Themoredistanttherelationshipbetweenrelativesoutsidethenuclearfamilyis,thesimplertheappellationwillbecomeKinshipappellationmaynotevenbeusedforrelationsbeyondthreegenerations.Butevenso,EnglishislessdescriptivethanChinese.Forexample,ageinChineseisnotreflectedinEnglishaddressing.InChinese,theoldestbrothercanbecalled"大哥(eldestbrother)",followedby"二哥(thesecondoldestbrother)"and"三哥(thirdoldestbrother)".InEnglish,theappellationofbrothersismostlyreplacedbythefirstname,andinthewrittenlanguage,itisonlyprefixed,like“older”and“younger”,tosolvetheproblemofage.ItisknownthatthesystemofkinshiptermsinwesterncountriesisfarlesscomplexthanthatinChinese.OnekinshipappellationinEnglishcorrespondstomultiplekinshipappellationsinChinese,whichalsoindicatestheaccuracyofdescriptioninChina’skinshipappellationsystem,andbasicallygivesdifferentappellationtoeachkindofrelativesindifferentkinshiprelationsanddifferentgenerations.Inaddition,Chinesealsohasthefollowingusage,namelytwodifferentfamilymembersarecalledtogetherasone,suchas父子,夫妻.TherearefewcertainvocabulariestoexpressthesewordsintheEnglishappellationsystem.InEnglish,thesuffix“s”isusuallyusedinthecaseofrelativesofthesamesexandinthesameplaceathome,likebrothers,andtheyuse“and”tocombinewhenrelativesaremembersoftheoppositesex,suchashusbandandwife.Inaddition,intermsoftheappellationofrelation-by-marriage,theappellationinEnglishissimplerthanChineseappellation.Theirrelativewordsalwaysadoptthemethodofaddingsuffix“in-law”toconsanguinitywords,suchasson-in-law.Withinthefamily,kinshipmustfirstappearasareproductiveunit.Theseprimarykinshiprelationshipswithinfamiliesinallsocietiesarebiologicallythesame,butfunctionally,thereareculturaldifferences.AccordingtotheclassificationofAmericananthropologistMoore,allthekinshipsystemsintheworldcanbecategorizedintoclassificationsystemanddescriptivesystem.Thecharacteristicsofclassificationsystemarethesuperiorandtheinferiorseniority.Thatis:(1)Donotindicatewhetherrelativesarepaternalormaternal.(2)Donotindicatethedirectlineofrelatives.(3)Donotindicatetherankorderofrelatives.ThepeoplebelongingtoclassificationsystemaremainlyinEuropeandAmerica.Andthecharacteristicsofthedescriptivesystemarequitedifferent:(1)namelymalelineandmatrilineallineisdistinct.(2)lineallineandbesidelineisdistinct,(3)superiorandinferiorsituationhasbeenexplainedclearly.TheappellationsysteminChinabelongstodescriptivesystem.ThekinshiptermsofalltheEnglish-speakingcountriesintheworlddonotwellreflectthesituationmentionedabove.Chineseadoptsdescriptivesystem,soallkindsofrelatives’relationexpressionisspecificandaccurate.BothChineseandEnglisharelanguageswithalonghistoryandrichculturaltraditions.Thedifferenceofculturaltraditionsisanimportantreasonforthegreatvariationofkinshipappellationsystem.2.3CulturalReasonsfortheseDifferencesThereasonforthetwoappellationsystemsaresodifferentisthatthetwolanguagesandcultureshavedifferentculturaltraditions,historicalbackgroundsandpoliticalsystems.WhenwecompareChineseculturewithwesternculture,wecanseemanyobviousdifferences.TheChineseappellationsystemismorecomplicatedthanthewesternappellationsystembecausetheChinesepolitenesssystemismorecomplexthanthewesternone.In134B.C.,theChineseestablishedahighlydevelopedritualculture.BecauseChineseancestorsregardedethicsasthecornerstoneofsocialstability,andsocietywasthefoundationofthepoweroftherulingclass.WiththeemergenceofConfucius'Confucianism,China'sancientritesformedacompleteandstrictsystem.Infact,thesystemisnotonlyaculturaltraditionbutalsoplaysaroleinpoliticalsystemsandlegalinstitutions.TheRitesofZhouemphasizes“Ethicscanremovethefalseandpreservethetrue,anditcanmakepeoplebehaveproperly.”“Peoplecangetalongwitheachotherundertheguidanceofpoliteness.”Inaddition,etiquetteandethicsenforcethestatusofaperson,andone'ssenioritywillgivehimrelevantrightsandobligations.Theorderofpeople’srelationshipisdeterminedbysocialstatusorage.Theministermustobeytheking,thewifemustobeyherhusband,thesonmustobeyhisfather,andsoon.Thisrelationshipmustbereflectedintheappellationsystem.Therefore,wehaveappellationformslike大哥,二哥.Chinahasbeenafeudalsocietyforthousandsofyears,anditisknownastheCountryofRites.InChineseculture,thetraditionalmoralcodesandthehierarchicalthinkinghadfar-reachingconsequencesontheappellation.TheBenevolenceandtheRitesadvocatedbyConfuciusaretheessenceofChineseculture,andtheyhavedominatedChinesecultureformanyyears.TraditionalChinesecultureemphasizesthestatusofpaternalrelativesandmaintainsthepaternalrelatives,teachingChinesepeopletobefilialtotheirfatherandbrother,butalsotolovetheirrelatives.Thisideaismainlyusedtoclassifyandrankpeople,becausethestabilityofthesocialorderisthestabilityoftherulingorder.TheBenevolenceandtheRitesformedacomplicated,detailedandaccurateChinesekinshipappellationsystem.ComparedwiththecomplicatedritesinChina,theetiquetteinwesterncountriesisrelativelysimpler.Afterthe14thcentury,westernetiquettebegantotakeshape.WiththeexceptionofancientGreeceandRome,almostallEuropeanswererelativelybarbaricbeforetheRenaissance.ComparedwithChina'semphasisonethics,etiquetteinwesternsocietyisonlyacivilizeddecorationandornamentoftheupperclass.Inaddition,theRenaissanceofliteratureandart,asaculturalphenomenonoftherevivalofancientGreek,sowedseedsforthegerminationofdemocraticconsciousness.Infact,theRenaissancelaidthefoundationforcapitalismtosomeextent.AspeopleturnedtheirinteresttoGodandlifeafterthedeathtotheriseoftheirownstatusandfocusonearlylife,materialistphilosophyandscientificthinkinggraduallyreplacedthemedievalchurchdoctrineandreligiousdivinity.Asaresult,anewcultureemergedinancientGreeceintherevivaloftheoldculture.Throughtheexplorationoftheinfinitepotentialofmankind,newphilosophies,sciences,artsandliteratureemerged,andgraduallytheideawasestablishedthatallmen,regardlessoftheirbackgroundandage,werecreatedequal.Thisequalitywasinevitablyreflectedintheappellationsystem.Inafamily,theageofbrothersandsistersandtheageoftheparents'brothersandsistersarenotnecessarytobearrangedinorder,sotheyonlyhaveappellationssuchasbrother,sister,uncleandaunt.ThisisinstarkcontrasttothehierarchicalsystemofHannationalityinChina.EqualityandcompetitioninrelationshipsarecoordinateinEnglish-speakingcountries.Therefore,equalitybetweenpeopleiseasytobeformed,andsolidarityisboundtobegreaterthanpower.Capitalistsocietydoesnotemphasizeauthority,soabsoluteauthoritydoesnotexist.Sothereisageneralviewincapitalistsociety:allmenarecreatedequal,regardlessoftheirbackgroundorage.Thisideaofequalitymustbeembodiedinitsappellationsystem.Inotherwords,inafamily,brothersandsistersdonothavetobeaddressedinorderofage,sonsanddaughterscanevencalltheirparentsbytheirfirstnames.Callingsomeonebytheirfirstnameiscommonandacceptableinwesterncountries,althoughitisconsideredunfilialandimpoliteinChina.Moreover,thedifferencesinthenumberandtypesofkinshipappellationbetweenWesternandChineseappellationsystemfullyshowthedifferencesinfamilystructure,cultureandbloodrelationshipconceptinEasternandWesterncountries.Westerncountriespaylessattentiontothekinshipofblood,whichhasabiggerconcernwithitssimplefamilystructure.Afterenteringtheindustrialsociety,BritishandAmericanpeople'sviewsonprocreationchanged,andtheextendedfamilydeclinedsharplyandwasgraduallyreplacedbythenuclearfamilyconsistedoftwogenerations.Thenumberoffamilymembersdecreasedobviously,andthekinshiprelationshipbecamemoreandmoresimplified,becausethekinshipappellationwasalsosimplified.Tothem,relativesandordinarystrangersarenotmuchdifferent.Kinshipappellationsarealmostthesame.Theydon'tusekinshipappellationtobondwithunrelatedmemberstoimprovetherelationship.(韦艳梅,2009(73):62)Besides,Chinesepeopleadvocatethestructureoftheextendedfamilyandemphasizeonkinship.InChina,peopleofaclanliketolivetogether,people'sclanconceptisverystrongaccordingtoChinesetradition,andthedistanceofkinisalsoveryimportant.(李娟,2008(4):244)Inthemindsofordinarypeople,themorepeopleinafamily,thehappiertheyare.Also,therearesomeoldsayingsinChina.Forexample,theentireworldisonefamilyandallmenarebrothers.Atthesametime,thenepotismformedbymarriagemakestherelationshipbetweenpeoplemorecomplicated.Inaddition,intraditionalChineseculture,peoplearemoreinclinedtoputtheirsocialityinthefamily.Duetothelargenumberoffamilymembersandstricthierarchy,kinshipappellationinChinaisfarmorecomplicatedthanthatinwesterncountries.Infact,thetraditionalinterpersonalrelationshipinChinaisanetworkofrelationshipsthatexpandoutwardalongtheorderofrelatives.However,westerncountriesthinkaman’shomeishiscastle,whichissacrosanct.Moreover,familykinshipofwesternersiscomparativelyweak.TheChinesetendtopursuetheconceptofwholenesswhilewesternersadvocatetheideaofindividual.Hehimselfisthemostimportantoneintheworld,nothisfamilyorhisclan.Therefore,theythinkthatitisnoneedtodistinguishbetweenpaternalandmaternalbloodrelations,butonlytotakeaverysimpleformtocalltheirdirectbloodrelatives.Becauseofthisconcept,parentsofbrothersarecalleduncle,parentsofsistersarecalledaunt,fatherandmotherofparentscalledgrandparents,alluncleandaunt'schildrenareonlycousin.Hence,intheactualcommunication,itisimpolitetoapplythiskindofChineseappellationtothewesternpeople,soasnottocausediscomfortandevenleadtoantipathy.3.ContrastiveAnalysisofSocialAppellation3.1CommonComponentsofSocialAppellationsOnthebasisofpreviousresearches,RogerBrownandMargueriteForddividedtheappellationsystemintothreesemanticpatterns:(1)themutualexchangeoffirstname;(2)themutualexchangeoftitle+lastname;(3)thenonreciprocalpattern.(R.Brown&M.Ford,1964)Thefirsttworeciprocalpatternsareconstrainedbyonefactor:AmericansusetheformTLN(title+lastname)tocallpeopletheyjustmeetorthosetheyarenotfamiliarwith.Andtheyalsowantpeopletocallthembackinthesameway.Thenonreciprocalpatternisconstrainedbytwofactors:ageandoccupationalstatus.Forexample,theolderpersoncancallsomeoneofasimilaragebyusingTLNbutFN(firstname)ismoreappropriatefortalkingtoayoungerperson.However,incommunication,theelderisnotnecessarilythepersoninahighposition.Whentherearecertaindifferencesinageandoccupationalstatus,thestatuscomesfirst.ButinChina,toaddressoneselforothersistofirstcalltheirsurnameandthentheirgivenname.Inmoreformalsituations,itcanbeshortenedto"Mr.X"or"Ms.X"basedongender,where"X"standsforlastname.3.2DifferencesofSocialAppellationsbetweenEastandWestGregoryandCarrollpointedoutthatsocialappellationsmaybethemostobviousmeansofindicatingsocialrelationshipsandroles.(Gregory,1978)Firstofall,inChinese,therelationshipwordsthatcangenerallyrepresentsocialstatussuchasprofessionaltitleandpositioncanbeusedinsocialappellation.Forexample,adrivernamed王明canbecalled司机(driver),王司机or王明司机.Inthetitle,inordertoshowrespect,thespeakercanignoretheword“deputy”or“deputy”.Forexample,VicePresidentWuiscalledPresidentWu,andViceSecretaryCheniscalledSecretaryChen.Atcertaintime,wecanevenuse“teacher”toaddresspeoplewhoarenotarealteacher.ButinEnglish,occupationcannotbeusedasanappellationword,becauseithasverystronglimitation.Itcanonlybeusedinroyal,politics,militaryandlegalcircles,suchasPresidentObama.Peopleonlyuseafewwordstoexpresstitleanditsappellationslikechairman,professoranddoctor.Asamatteroffact,notallpositionscanbeusedasanappellationinAmericanEnglish,andtheyshowsomeoccupationalstatus.Theword“president”,forexample,canbeusedatdifferentlevels,likenation,bankandschool.ButtheChinesetitleofoccupationalstatusismorespecific,like银行行长(bankpresident).Intermsofdegreetitles,EnglishandChineseareverysimilar.Usuallyonlyadvanceddegreesareusedastitles,suchasProfessorandDoctor.Whileotherdegrees,likemaster'sdegrees,arenotusedastitles.ItcanbeseenthatacademicstatusisvaluedinbothWesternandChinesecultures.ItisworthmentioningthatinChinese,therearenotonly老王(OldWang)andother“Old+surname”formofappellation,butalsoarespectfulnamelike老师傅(OldMaster)and“surname+Old”whichismorerespectfulthanthefirsttwo.However,inAmericanculture,Whetherinthesocietyorinthefamily,mostoftheelderlyareignored,andtheyfeelthattheyarenolongerusefulandresentbeingcalledold.IfwetranslatetheaboveappellationdirectlyintoEnglish,theaddresseewillnotonlyfeelembarrassed,butalsoinsulted.ItisundisputedthatthenegativeeffectofcopyingtheChinesecultureintotheEnglishculturewouldbeproduced.(毕继万,1997(1))Westernpeopleprefertobecalledbytheirfirstnames,whichtheyfindmorenatural,socallingthembytheirfirstnamesismorecommonamongcolleagues,classmatesandneighbors,makingthemseemeasygoingandfriendly.Itisalsocommonforafatherandsontocalleachotherbytheirfirst