英语语言学概论-

PAGEPAGE13Chapter1Language语言Designfeature(识别特征)referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Productivity(能产性)referstotheabilitythatpeoplehaveinmakingandcomprehendingindefinitelylargequantitiesofsentencesintheirnativelanguage.arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrarinessreferstothephenomenonthatthereisnomotivatedrelationshipbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.symbol(符号)Symbolreferstosomethingsuchasanobject,word,orsoundthatrepresentssomethingelsebyassociationorconvention.discreteness(离散性)Discretenessreferstothephenomenonthatthesoundsinalanguagearemeaningfullydistinct.displacement(不受时空限制的特性)Displacementreferstothefactthathumanlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingsthatarenotintheimmediatesituationsofitsusers.dualityofstructure(结构二重性)Theorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels,oneofsounds,theotherofmeaning,isknownasdualityofstructure.culturetransmission(文化传播)Culturetransmissionreferstothefactthatlanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyerchangeability(互换性)Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.★Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage.First,languageisasystem.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesense.Thethirdfeatureoflanguageissymbolicnature. ★Whatarethedesignfeaturesoflanguage?Languagehassevendesignfeaturesasfollowing:1)Productivity.2)Discreteness.3)Displacement4)Arbitrariness.5)Culturaltransmission6)Dualityofstructure.7)Interchangeability.Whydowesaylanguageisasystem?Becauseelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules,andeverylanguagecontainsasetofrules.Bysystem,therecurringpatternsorarrangementsortheparticularwaysordesignsinwhichalanguageoperates.Andthesounds,thewordsandthesentencesareusedinfixedpatternsthatspeakerofalanguagecanunderstandeachother.★(Functionoflanguage.)AccordingtoHalliday,whataretheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage?Andwhatarethethreefunctionalcomponentsofadultlanguage?Hallidayusesthefollowingtermstorefertotheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage:1)Instrumentalfunction.工具功能2)Regulatoryfunction.调节功能3)Representationalfunction.表现功能4)Interactionalfunction.互动功能5)Personalfunction.自指性功能6)Heuristicfunction.启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7)Imaginativefunction.想象功能Adultlanguagehasthreefunctionalcomponentsasfollowing:1)Interpersonalcomponents.人际2)Ideationalcomponents.概念3)Textualcomponents.语篇

Chapter2Linguistics语言学generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学)Theformerdealswithlanguageingeneralwhereasthelatterisconcernedwithoneparticularlanguage.synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学)Diachroniclinguisticstracesthehistoricaldevelopmentofthelanguageandrecordsthechangesthathavetakenplaceinitbetweensuccessivepointsintime.Andsynchroniclinguisticspresentsanaccountoflanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime.theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics(理论语言学与应用语言学)Theformercopeswithlanguageswithaviewtoestablishingatheoryoftheirstructuresandfunctionswhereasthelatterisconcernedwiththeapplicationoftheconceptsandfindingsoflinguisticstoallsortsofpracticaltasks.microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)Theformerstudiesonlythestructureoflanguagesystemwhereasthelatterdealswitheverythingthatisrelatedtolanguages.langueandparole(语言与言语)Theformerreferstotheabstractlinguisticssystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunitywhereasthelatterreferstotheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationbyanindividualpetenceandperformance(语言能力与语言运用)Theformerisone’sknowledgeofallthelinguisticregulationsystemswhereasthelatteristheuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.speechandwriting(口头语与书面语)Speechisthespokenformoflanguagewhereaswritingiswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscope.linguisticsbehaviorpotentialandactuallinguisticbehavior(语言行为潜势与实际语言行为)Peopleactuallysaysonacertainoccasiontoacertainpersonisactuallinguisticsbehavior.Andeachofpossiblelinguisticitemsthathecouldhavesaidislinguisticbehaviorpotential.syntagmaticrelationandparadigmaticrelation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系)Theformerdescribesthehorizontaldimensionofalanguagewhilethelatterdescribestheverticaldimensionofalanguage.verbalcommunicationandnon-verbalcommunication(言语交际与非言语交际)Usualuseoflanguageasameansoftransmittinginformationiscalledverbalcommunication.Thewaysweconveymeaningwithoutusinglanguageiscallednon-verbalcommunication.★HowdoesJohnLyonsclassifylinguistics?AccordingtoJohnLyons,thefieldoflinguisticsasawholecanbedividedintoseveralsubfieldsasfollowing:1)Generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics.2)Synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics.3)Theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics.4)Microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics.Explainthethreeprinciplesbywhichthelinguistisguided:consistency,adequacyandsimplicity.1)Consistencymeansthatthereshouldbenocontradictionsbetweendifferentpartsofthetheoryandthedescription.2)Adequacymeansthatthetheorymustbebroadenoughinscopetooffersignificantgeneralizations.3)Simplicityrequiresustobeasbriefandeconomicaspossible.★Whatarethesub-branchesoflinguisticswithinthelanguagesystem?Withinthelanguagesystemtherearesixsub-branchesasfollowing:1)Phonetics.语音学isastudyofspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.2)Phonology.音位学studiesaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofaspeaker’snativelanguage.3)Morphology.形态学studiesabouthowawordisformed.4)Syntax.句法学studiesaboutwhetherasentenceisgrammaticalornot.5)Semantics.语义学studiesaboutthemeaningoflanguage,includingmeaningofwordsandmeaningofsentences.6)Pragmatics.语用学★Thescopeoflanguage:Linguisticsisreferredtoasascientificstudyoflanguage.★Thescientificprocessoflinguisticstudy:Itinvolvesfourstages:collectingdata,formingahypothesis,testingthehypothesisanddrawingconclusions.

Chapter3Phonetics语音学articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)Thestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.acousticphonetics(声学语音学)Thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics.auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学)Thestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics.consonant(辅音)Consonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairformthelanguageiseithercompletelyblocked,orpartiallyblocked,orwheretheopeningbetweenthespeechorgansissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.vowel(元音)isdefinedasaspeechsoundinwhichtheairfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayandispronouncedwithvocal-cordvibration.bilabials(双唇音)Bilabialsmeansthatconsonantsforwhichtheflowofairisstoppedorrestrictedbythetwolips.[p][b][m][w]affricates(塞擦音)Thesoundproducedbystoppingtheairstreamandthenimmediatelyreleasingitslowlyiscalledaffricates.[tX][dY][tr][dr]glottis(声门)Glottisisthespacebetweenthevocalcords.roundedvowel(圆唇元音)Roundedvowelisdefinedasthevowelsoundpronouncedbythelipsformingacircularopening.[u:][u][OB][O]diphthongs(双元音)Diphthongsareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.[ei][ai][Oi][Qu][au]triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongsarethosewhichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherandthenrapidlyandcontinuouslytoathirdone.[eiQ][aiQ][OiQ][QuQ][auQ]laxvowels(松元音)Accordingtodistinctionoflongandshortvowels,vowelsareclassifiedtensevowelsandlaxvowels.Allthelongvowelsaretensevowelsbutoftheshortvowels,[e]isatensevowelaswell,andtherestshortvowelsarelaxvowels.1.★Howareconsonantsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria?TheconsonantsinEnglishcanbedescribedintermsoffourdimensions.Thepositionofthesoftpalate.Thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration.Theplaceofarticulation.Themannerofarticulation.★Howarevowelsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria?Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors.ThestateofthevelumThepositionofthetongue.Theopennessofthemouth.Theshapeofthelips.Thelengthofthevowels.Thetensionofthemusclesatpharynx.★Whatarethethreesub-branchesofphonetics?Howdotheydifferfromeachother?Phoneticshasthreesub-branchesasfollowing:Articulatoryphoneticsisthestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.Acousticphoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics.Auditoryphoneticsisthestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics.★Whatarethecommonlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsandvowelsrespectively?I.Thefrequentlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsincludethefollowing:Voiced.Nasal.Consonantal.Vocalic.Continuant.Anterior.Coronal.Aspirated.II.Themostcommonphoneticfeaturesforvowelsincludethefollowing:High.Low.Front.Back.Rounded.Tense.

Chapter4Phonology音位学phonemes(音位)Phonemesareminimaldistinctiveunitsinthesoundsystemofalanguage.allophones(音位变体)Allophonesarethephoneticvariantsandrealizationsofaparticularphoneme.phones(单音)Thesmallestidentifiablephoneticunitfoundinastreamofspeechiscalledaphone.minimalpair(最小对立体)Minimalpairmeanswordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.contrastivedistribution(对比分布)Iftwoormoresoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherbringsaboutachangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincontrastiveplementarydistribution(互补分布)Iftwoormoresoundsneverappearinthesameenvironment,thentheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.freevariation(自由变异)Whentwosoundscanappearinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotcauseanychangeinmeaning,thentheyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.distinctivefeatures(区别性特征)Adistinctivefeatureisafeaturewhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.suprasegmentalfeatures(超切分特征)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.tonelanguages(声调语言)Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordonationlanguages(语调语言)Intonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel.juncture(连音)Juncturereferstothephoneticboundaryfeatureswhichmaydemarcategrammaticalunits.1.★WhatarethedifferencesbetweenEnglishphoneticsandEnglishphonology?Phoneticsisthestudyoftheproduction,perception,andphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,whilephonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.Phoneticsisthestudyoftheactualsoundswhilephonologyisconcernedwithamoreabstractdescriptionofspeechsoundsandtriestodescribetheregularitiesofsoundpatterns.Giveexamplestoillustratetherelationshipbetweenphonemes,phonesandallophones.Whenwehear[pit],[tip],[spit],etc,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare/p/.And/p/and/b/areseparatephonemesinEnglish,while[ph]and[p]areallophones.Howcanwedecideaminimalpairoraminimalset?Aminimalpairshouldmeetthreeconditions:Thetwoformsaredifferentinmeaning.Thetwoformsaredifferentinonesoundsegment.Thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositionofthetwostrings.★Useexamplestoexplainthethreetypesofdistribution.Contrastivedistribution.Sounds[m]inmetand[n]innetareincontrastivedistributionbecausesubstituting[m]for[n]willresultinachangeofmeaning.Complementarydistribution.Theaspiratedplosive[ph]andtheunaspiratedplosive[p]areincomplementarydistributionbecausetheformeroccurseitherinitiallyinawordorinitiallyinastressedsyllablewhilethelatterneveroccursinsuchenvironments.Freevariation.InEnglish,theword“direct”maybepronounceintwoways:/di’rekt/and/dia’rekt/,andthetwodifferentsounds/i/and/ai/canbesaidtobeinfreevariation.What’sthedifferencebetweensegmentalfeaturesandsuprasegmentalfeatures?WhatarethesuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglish?I.1)Distinctivefeatures,whichareusedtodistinguishonephonemefromanotherandthushaveeffectononesoundsegment,arereferredtoassegmentalfeatures.2)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.3)Suprasegmentalfeaturesmayhaveeffectonmorethanonesoundsegment.Theymayapplytoastringofseveralsounds.II.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,tone,intonationandjuncture.What’sthedifferencebetweentonelanguagesandintonationlanguage?Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordlevelwhileintonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel★What’sthedifferencebetweenphonetictranscriptionsandphonemictranscriptions?Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallpossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciation,whilethelatterwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.

Chapter5Morphology形态学morphemes(语素)Morphemesaretheminimalmeaningfulunitsinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.allomorphs(语素变体)Allomorphsaretherealizationsofaparticularmorpheme.morphs(形素)Morphsaretherealizationsofmorphemesingeneralandaretheactualformsusedtorealizemorphemes.roots(词根)Rootsisdefinedasthemostimportantpartofawordthatcarriestheprincipalmeaning.affixes(词缀)Affixesaremorphemesthatlexicallydependonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords.freemorphemes(自由语素)Freemorphemesarethosewhichcanexistasindividualwords.boundmorphemes(粘着语素)Boundmorphemesarethosewhichcannotoccurontheirownasseparatewords.inflectionalaffixes(屈折词缀)refertoaffixesthatservetoindicategrammaticalrelations,butdonotchangeitspartofspeech.derivationalaffixes(派生词缀)refertoaffixesthatareaddedtowordsinordertochangeitsgrammaticalcategoryoritsmeaning.emptymorph(空语子)Emptymorphmeansamorphwhichhasformbutnomeaning.zeromorph(零语子)Zeromorphreferstoamorphwhichhasmeaningbutnoform.ICAnalysis(直接成分分析)ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression(bothawordandasentence)intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents.immediateconstituents(直接成分)Aimmediateconstituentisanyoneofthelargestgrammaticalunitsthatconstituteaconstruction.Immediateconstituentsareoftenfurtherreducible.ultimateconstituents(最后成分)Ultimateconstituentsarethosegrammaticallyirreducibleunitsthatconstituteconstructions.morphologicalrules(形态学规则)Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.word-formationprocess(构词法)Word-formationprocessmeantherule-governedprocessesofformingnewwordsonthebasisofalreadyexistinglinguisticresources.1.★WhatisICAnalysis?ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression(bothawordandasentence)intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents.Howaremorphemesclassified?Semanticallyspeaking,morphemesaregroupedintotwocategories:rootmorphemesandaffixationalmorphemes.Structurallyspeaking,theyaredividedintotwotypes:freemorphemesandboundmorphemes.★Explaintheinterrelationsbetweensemanticandstructuralclassificationsofmorphemes.Allfreemorphemesarerootsbutnotallrootsarefreemorphemes.Allaffixesareboundmorphemes,butnotallboundmorphemesareaffixes.What’sthedifferencebetweenanemptymorphandazeromorph?Emptymorphmeansamorphthathasformbutnomeaning.Zeromorphreferstoamorphthathasmeaningbutnoform.Explainthedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixesintermofbothfunctionandposition.Functionally:Inflectionalaffixessevertomarkgrammaticalrelationsandnevercreatenewwordswhilederivationalaffixescancreatenewwords.Inflectionalaffixesdonotcauseachangeingrammaticalclasswhilederivationalaffixesveryoftenbutnotalwayscauseachangeingrammaticalclass.Intermofposition:Inflectionalaffixesaresuffixeswhilederivationalaffixescanbesuffixesorprefixes.Inflectionalaffixesarealwaysafterderivationalaffixesifbotharepresent.Andderivationalaffixesarealwaysbeforeinflectionalsuffixesifbotharepresent.Whataremorphologicalrules?Giveatleastfourruleswithexamples.Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.Forexample:un-+adj.->adj.Adj./n.+-ify->v.V.+-able->adj.Adj.+-ly->adv.

Chapter6Syntax句法学syntagmaticrelations(横组关系)refertotherelationshipsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction.paradigmaticrelations(纵聚合关系)refertotherelationsbetweenthelinguisticelementswithinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence.hierarchicalrelations(等级关系)refertorelationshipsbetweenanyclassificationoflinguisticunitswhichrecognizesaseriesofsuccessivelysubordinatelevels.ICAnalysis(直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction.labeledICAnalysis(标记法直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstructionandlabeleachconstituent.phrasemarkers(短语标记法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction,andlabeleachconstituentwhileremoveallthelinguisticforms.labeledbracketing(方括号标记法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichisappliedinrepresentingthehierarchicalstructureofsentencesbyusingbrackets.constituency(成分关系)dependency(依存关系)surfacestructures(表层结构)referstothementalrepresentationofalinguisticexpression,derivedfrom\o"Deepstructure"deepstructureby\o"Transformationalgrammar"transformationalrules.deepstructures(深层结构)deepstructureofalinguistic\o"Expression"expressionisatheoreticalconstructthatseekstounifyseveralrelatedstructures.phrasestructurerules(短语结构规则)areawaytodescribeagivenlanguage's\o"Syntax"syntax.Theyareusedtobreakanatural\o"Language"languagesentencedownintoitsconstituentparts.transformationalrules(转换规则)structuralambiguity(结构歧义)Whatarethedifferencesbetweensurfacestructureanddeepstructure?Theyaredifferentfromeachotherinfouraspects:Surfacestructurescorresponddirectlytothelineararrangementsofsentenceswhiledeepstructurescorrespondtothemeaningfulgroupingofsentences.Surfacestructuresaremoreconcretewhiledeepstructuresaremoreabstract.Surfacestructuresgivetheformsofsentenceswhereasdeepstructuresgivethemeaningsofsentences.Surfacestructuresarepronounceablebutdeepstructuresarenot.IllustratethedifferencesbetweenPSrulesandT-rules.1)PSrulesfrequentlyappliedingeneratingdeepstructures.2)T-rulesareusedtotransformdeepstructureintosurfacestructures.What’stheorderofgeneratingsentences?Dowestartwithsurfacestructuresorwithdeepstructures?Howdifferentlyaretheygenerated?Togenerateasentence,wealwaysstartwithitsdeepstructure,andthentransformitintoitscorrespondingsurfacestructure.Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules(PSrules)whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfromtheirdeepstructuresbytransformationalrules(T-rules).What’sthedifferencebetweenacompulsoryconstituentandanoptionalone?Optionalconstituentsmaybepresentorabsentwhilecompulsoryconstituentsmustbepresent.Whatarethethreesyntacticrelations?Illustratethemwithexamples.1)Syntagmaticrelations2)Paradigmaticrelations.3)Hierarchicalrelations.

Chapter7Semantics语义学Lexicalsemantics(词汇语义学)isdefinedasthestudyofwordmeaninginlanguage.Sense(意义)referstotheinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Reference(所指)meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealworld.Concept(概念)istheresultofhumancognition,reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.Denotation(外延)isdefinedastheconstant,abstract,andbasicmeaningofalinguisticexpressionindependentofcontextandsituation.Connotation(内涵)referstotheemotionalassociationswhicharesuggestedby,orarepartofthemeaningof,alinguisticunit.Componentialanalysis(成分分析法)isthewaytodecomposethemeaningofawordintoitscomponents.Semanticfield(语义场)Thevocabularyofalanguageisnotsimplyalistingofindependentitems,butisorganizedintoareas,withinwhichwordsinterrelateanddefineeachotherinvariousways.Theareasaresemanticfields.Hyponymy(上下义关系)referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Synonymy(同义关系)referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Antonymy(反义关系)referstotheoppositenessofmeaning.Lexicalambiguity(词汇歧义)Polysemy(多义性)referstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Homonymy(同音(同形)异义关系)referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform.Sentencesemantics(句子语义学)referstothestudyofsentencemeaninginlanguage.What’sthecriterionofJohnLyonsinclassifyingsemanticsintoitssub-branches?Andhowdoesheclassifysemantics?Intermsofwhetheritfallswithinthescopeoflinguistics,JohnLyonsdistinguishesbetweenlinguisticsemanticsandnon-linguisticsemantics.AccordingJohnLyons,semanticsisoneofthesub-branchesoflinguistics;itisgenerallydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Whataretheessentialfactorsfordeterminingsentencemeaning?1)Object,2)concept,3)symbol,4)user,5)context.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetheoryofcomponentialanalysisandthetheoryofsemantictheoryindefiningmeaningofwords?Whatarethesenserelationsbetweensentences?S1issynonymouswithS2.S1entailsS2.S1contradictsS2.S1presupposesS2.S1isatautology,andthereforeinvariablytrue.S1isacontradiction,andthereforeinvariablyfalse.S1issemanticallyanomalous.

Chapter8Pragmatics语用学Speechacttheory(言语行为理论)Cooperativeprincipleanditsmaxims(合作原则及其准则)Politenessprincipleanditsmaxims(礼貌原则及其准则)Conversationalimplicature(会话含义)Indirectspeechact(间接言语行为)Pragmaticpresupposition(语用学预设)Relevancetheory(关联理论)Illocutionaryact(言外行为)(Horn’s)Q-PrincipleandR-PrinciplePerfrmativeverbs(施为句动词)Makecommentsonthedifferentdefinitionsofpragmatics.Whatarethemaintypesofdeixis?Explainthestatement:contextissoindispensableinfullyunderstandinginterpretingthespeaker’smeaning.HowareAustin’sandSearle’sspeechacttheoriesrelatedtoeachother?What’stherelationshipbetweenCPandPP?WhatdoyouknowaboutpresuppositiontriggersinEnglish?Explainthembrieflywithexamples.Whatisostensive-referentialcommunication?Explaintheobviouspresuppositionofspeakerwhosayeachofthefollowing:Whendidyoustopbeatingyourwife?WheredidTombuythewatch?Yourcarisbroken.Whatdoyouthinkofthefollowingstatement?“Tomparticipatedinspreadingrumors”entails“Tomengagedinspreadingrumors”.

Chapter9话语分析text(语篇)=discourse语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。它可以是对话，也可以是独白，它包括书面语，也包括口语discourse(话语)Discourseisusedinlinguisticstorefertoanypassage,spokenorwritten,ofwhateverlength.context(语境)Linguisticcontextreferstothelanguagethatsurroundsoraccompaniesthepieceofutteranceordiscourseinquestion.pre-sequencesPre-sequencereferstothekindofsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactions.adjacencypairs(毗邻对)Anadjacencypairisaunitofconversationthatcontainsanexchangeofoneturneachbytwospeakers.turn-taking(话轮转换)Turn-takingreferstothewayinwhichparticipantsofaconversationtaketurnsatspeaking.reference(所指)Referencesignalstothereaderwhatkindofinformationistoberetrieved.substitution(替代)Substitutionmeansusinganotherwordtotaketheplaceofthethingthatisbeingdiscussed.ellipsis(省略)Ellipsisistheabsenceofspecificinformationinthetext,suchomissioncanbeunderstoodfromprecedinginformationinthetext.conjunction(连词)aconjunctionisapartofspeechthatconnectstwowords,phrasesorclausestogether.reiteration(复现)Reiterationistherepetitionofalexicaliteminthecontextofreference.collocation(搭配)Collocationisthelexicalcohesionthatisachievedthroughtheassociationoflexicalitemsthatregularlyco-occur.Whatistherelationshipbetweendiscourseanalysisandconversationalanalysis?会话分析的目的是分析一次自然会话的语言学特征和会话在日常生活中的用途；而语篇分析是对口头语和书面语中的句子是如何形成较大的意义单位，如段落、会话等的研究。Howdoescriticaldiscourseanalysisdifferfrompositivediscourseanalysis?ThepurposeofCDAistodisclosetheideologyhiddeninanypublicdiscourseanditsinfluenceondiscourseaswellasthecounteractiveinfluencethediscourseexertsonideology.OnecrucialdifferenceisthatCDAaimstoprovideacriticaldimensioninitstheoreticalanddescriptiveaccountsoftexts.TheaimofPDAistomakethecriticalthinkingdevelopmorehopefuldiscourses:peace,reconciliation,learningandalteration.What’sthedifferencebetweencohesionandcoherence?Cohesionisthemeanswherebyelementsthatarestructurallyunrelatedtooneanotherarelinkedtogether,throughthedependenceofoneontheotherforitsinterpretation.Coherencemeansnaturalorreasonableconnection.Inlanguagecommunication,itreferstoalogical,orderlyandaestheticalrelationshipbetweenparts,inspeech,writing,orargument.Explainthedifferencebetweenpreferredsecondpartsanddispreferredsecondparts.Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual,morenormalandlessspecific.Dispreferredsecondpartshavemuchincommon.Theycontainmorematerialthanpreferredsecondpart