Freudian Psychology(弗洛伊德心理分析学英文介绍)

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Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis(orFreudianpsychology)isabodyofideasdevelopedby

\o"Austria"

Austrian

physician

\o"SigmundFreud"

SigmundFreud

andcontinuedbyothers.Itisprimarilydevotedtothestudyofhumanpsychologicalfunctioningandbehavior,althoughitcanalsobeappliedtosocieties.Psychoanalysishasthreeapplications:

amethodofinvestigationofthemindandthewayonethinks;

asystematizedsetoftheoriesabouthumanbehavior;

amethodoftreatmentof

\o"Psychology"

psychological

or

\o"Emotion"

emotional

illness.

[1]

Underthebroadumbrellaofwhatispsychoanalysis,thereareatleast22theoreticalorientationsregardingtheunderlyingtheoryofunderstandingofhumanmentationandhumandevelopment.Thevariousapproachesintreatmentcalled"psychoanalytic"varyasmuchasthetheoriesdo.Thetermalsoreferstoamethodofstudying

\o"Childdevelopment"

childdevelopment

.

Freudianpsychoanalysisreferstoaspecifictypeoftreatmentinwhichthe"analysand"(analyticpatient)verbalizesthoughts,including

\o"Freeassociation(psychology)"

freeassociations

,

\o"Fantasy(psychology)"

fantasies

,and

\o"Dreaminterpretation"

dreams

,fromwhichtheanalystformulatesthe

\o"Unconsciousmind"

unconscious

conflictscausingthepatient'ssymptomsandcharacterproblems,andinterpretsthemforthepatienttocreateinsightforresolutionoftheproblems.

Thespecificsoftheanalyst'sinterventionstypicallyincludeconfrontingandclarifyingthepatient'spathological

\o"Defensemechanism"

defenses

,wishesand

\o"Guilt"

guilt

.Throughtheanalysisofconflicts,includingthosecontributingto

\o"Psychologicalresistance"

resistance

andthoseinvolving

\o"Transference"

transference

ontotheanalystofdistortedreactions,psychoanalytictreatmentcanclarifyhowpatientsunconsciouslyaretheirownworstenemies:howunconscious,symbolicreactionsthathavebeenstimulatedbyexperiencearecausingsymptoms.

Contents

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1History

1.11890s

1.21900–1940s

1.31940s-2000s

2Theories

2.1Topographictheory

2.2Structuraltheory

2.3Egopsychology

2.4Conflicttheory

2.5Objectrelationstheory

2.6Selfpsychology

2.7JacquesLacan/Lacanianpsychoanalysis

2.8Interpersonalpsychoanalysis

2.9Culturalistpsychoanalysts

2.10Relationalpsychoanalysis

2.11Interpersonal-Relationalpsychoanalysis

2.12Intersubjectivepsychoanalysis

2.13Modernpsychoanalysis

2.14Micropsychoanalysis

3Psychopathology(mentaldisturbances)

3.1Adultpatients

3.2Childhoodorigins

4Treatment

4.1Techniques

4.1.1Variationsintechnique

4.2Grouptherapyandplaytherapy

4.3Culturalvariations

4.4Costandlengthoftreatment

5Trainingandresearch

5.1PsychoanalysisinBritain

5.2Research

6Criticism

6.1Chargesoffascism

6.2Scientificcriticism

6.3Theoreticalcriticism

7References

8Literature

9Critiquesofpsychoanalysis

10Responsestocritiques

11Externallinks

[

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]History

[

\o"Editsection:1890s"

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]1890s

TheideaofpsychoanalysiswasdevelopedinViennainthe1890sby

\o"SigmundFreud"

SigmundFreud

,a

\o"Neurology"

neurologist

interestedinfindinganeffectivetreatmentforpatientswith

\o"Neurosis"

neurotic

or

\o"Hysteria"

hysterical

symptoms.FreudhadbecomeawareoftheexistenceofmentalprocessesthatwerenotconsciousasaresultofhisneurologicalconsultingjobattheChildren'sHospital,wherehenoticedthatmany

\o"Aphasia"

aphasic

childrenhadnoorganiccausefortheirsymptoms.Hewroteamonographaboutthissubject.

[2]

Inthelate1880s,Freudobtainedagranttostudywith

\o"Jean-MartinCharcot"

Jean-MartinCharcot

,thefamedneurologistandsyphilologist,atthe

\o"Pitié-SalpêtrièreHospital"

Salpêtrière

inParis.Charcothadbecomeinterestedinpatientswhohadsymptomsthatmimicked

\o"Generalparesis"

generalparesis

.Freud'sfirsttheorytoexplainhystericalsymptomswastheso-called"

\o"Freud'sseductiontheory"

seductiontheory

".Sincehispatientsundertreatmentwiththisnewmethod"remembered"incidentsofhavingbeensexuallyseducedinchildhood,Freudbelievedthattheyhadactuallybeenabusedonlytolaterrepressthosememories.ThisledtohispublicationwithDr.Breuerin1893ofcasereportsofthetreatmentofhysteria.

[3]

Thisfirsttheorybecameuntenableasanexplanationofallincidentsofhysteria.Asaresultofhisworkwithhispatients,Freudlearnedthatthemajoritycomplainedofsexualproblems,especially

\o"Coitusinterruptus"

coitusinterruptus

asbirthcontrol.Hesuspectedtheirproblemsstemmedfromculturalrestrictionsonsexualexpressionandthattheirsexualwishesandfantasieshadbeenrepressed.Betweenthisdiscoveryoftheunexpressedsexualdesiresandthereliefofthesymptomsbyabreaction,Freudbegantotheorizethattheunconsciousmindhaddeterminingeffectsonhystericalsymptoms.

HisfirstcomprehensiveattemptatanexplanatorytheorywasthethenunpublishedProjectforaScientificPsychologyin1895.

[4]

InthisworkFreudattemptedtodevelopaneurophysiologictheorybasedontransferofenergybytheneuronsinthebraininordertoexplainunconsciousmechanisms.Heabandonedtheprojectwhenhecametorealizethattherewasacomplicatedpsychologicalprocessinvolvedoverandaboveneuronalactivity.By1900,Freudhaddiscoveredthatdreamshadsymbolicsignificance,andgenerallywerespecifictothedreamer.Freudformulatedhissecondpsychologicaltheory—whichpostulatesthattheunconscioushasorisa"primaryprocess"consistingofsymbolicandcondensedthoughts,anda"secondaryprocess"oflogical,consciousthoughts.Thistheorywaspublishedinhis1900

\o"Masterpiece"

opusmagnum

,

\o"TheInterpretationofDreams"

TheInterpretationofDreams

.

[5]

ChapterVIIwasare-workingoftheearlier"Project"andFreudoutlinedhis"TopographicTheory."Inthistheory,whichwasmostlylatersupplantedbytheStructuralTheory,unacceptablesexualwisheswererepressedintothe"SystemUnconscious,"unconsciousduetosociety'scondemnationofpremaritalsexualactivity,andthisrepressioncreatedanxiety.Freudalsodiscoveredwhatmostofustakeforgrantedtoday:thatdreamsweresymbolicandspecifictothedreamer.Often,dreamsgivecluestounconsciousconflicts,andforthisreason,Freudreferredtodreamsasthe"royalroadtotheUnconscious."

[

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]1900–1940s

This"topographictheory"isstillpopularinmuchofEurope,althoughithasbeensupersededinmuchofNorthAmerica.

[6]

In1905,Freudpublished

\o"ThreeEssaysontheTheoryofSexuality"

ThreeEssaysontheTheoryofSexuality

[7]

inwhichhelaidouthisdiscoveryofso-called

\o"Psychosexualdevelopment"

psychosexualphases

:oral(ages0–2),anal(2-4),phallic-oedipal(todaycalled1stgenital)(3-6),latency(6-puberty),andmaturegenital(puberty-onward).Hisearlyformulationincludedtheideathatbecauseofsocietalrestrictions,sexualwisheswererepressedintoanunconsciousstate,andthattheenergyoftheseunconsciouswishescouldbeturnedintoanxietyorphysicalsymptoms.Thereforetheearlytreatmenttechniques,includinghypnotismandabreaction,weredesignedtomaketheunconsciousconsciousinordertorelievethepressureandtheapparentlyresultingsymptoms.

In

\o"OnNarcissism"

OnNarcissism

(1915)

[8]

Freudturnedhisattentiontothesubjectofnarcissism.Stillutilizinganenergicsystem,Freudconceptualizedthequestionofenergydirectedattheselfversusenergydirectedatothers,called

\o"Cathexis"

cathexis

.By1917,In"MourningandMelancholia,"hesuggestedthatcertaindepressionswerecausedbyturningguilt-riddenangerontheself.

[9]

In1919in"AChildisBeingBeaten"hebegantoaddresstheproblemsofself-destructivebehavior(moralmasochism)andfranksexualmasochism.

[10]

Basedonhisexperiencewithdepressedandself-destructivepatients,andponderingthecarnageof

\o"WWI"

WWI

,Freudbecamedissatisfiedwithconsideringonlyoralandsexualmotivationsforbehavior.By1920,Freudaddressedthepowerofidentification(withtheleaderandwithothermembers)ingroupsasamotivationforbehavior(GroupPsychologyandAnalysisoftheEgo).

[11]

Inthatsameyear(1920)Freudsuggestedhis"dualdrive"theoryofsexualityandaggressionin

\o"BeyondthePleasurePrinciple"

BeyondthePleasurePrinciple

,totrytobegintoexplainhumandestructiveness.

[12]

In1923,hepresentedhisnew"structuraltheory"ofan

\o"Id,ego,andsuperego"

id,ego,andsuperego

inabookentitled,

\o"TheEgoandtheId"

TheEgoandtheId

.

[13]

Therein,herevisedthewholetheoryofmentalfunctioning,nowconsideringthatrepressionwasonlyoneofmanydefensemechanisms,andthatitoccurredtoreduceanxiety.Notethatrepression,forFreud,isbothacauseofanxietyandaresponsetoanxiety.In1926,inInhibitions,SymptomsandAnxiety,Freudlaidouthowintrapsychicconflictamongdriveandsuperego(wishesandguilt)caused

\o"Anxiety"

anxiety

,andhowthatanxietycouldleadtoaninhibitionofmentalfunctions,suchasintellectandspeech.

[14]

.Inhibitions,SymptomsandAnxietywaswritteninresponseto

\o"OttoRank"

OttoRank

,who,in1924,publishedDasTraumaderGeburt(translatedintoEnglishin1929asTheTraumaofBirth),exploringhowart,myth,religion,philosophyandtherapywereilluminatedbyseparationanxietyinthe"phasebeforethedevelopmentoftheOedipuscomplex"(p.

216).ButtherewasnosuchphaseinFreud’stheories.The

\o"Oedipuscomplex"

Oedipuscomplex

,Freudexplainedtirelessly,wasthenucleusoftheneurosisandthefoundationalsourceofallart,myth,religion,philosophy,therapy—indeedofallhumancultureandcivilization.Itwasthefirsttimethatanyoneinthe

\o"Innercircle(psychoanalysis)"

innercircle

haddaredtosuggestthattheOedipuscomplexmightnotbetheonlyfactorcontributingtointrapsychicdevelopment

By1936,the"PrincipleofMultipleFunction"wasclarifiedbyRobertWaelder.

[15]

Hewidenedtheformulationthatpsychologicalsymptomswerecausedbyandrelievedconflictsimultaneously.Moreover,symptoms(suchas

\o"Phobia"

phobias

and

\o"Compulsivebehavior"

compulsions

)eachrepresentedelementsofsomedrivewish(sexualand/oraggressive),superego(guilt),anxiety,reality,anddefenses.Alsoin1936,

\o"AnnaFreud"

AnnaFreud

,Sigmund'sfamousdaughter,publishedherseminalbook,TheEgoandtheMechanismsofDefense,outliningnumerouswaysthemindcouldshutupsettingthingsoutofconsciousness.

[16]

[

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]1940s-2000s

FollowingthedeathofFreud,anewgroupofpsychoanalystsbegantoexplorethefunctionoftheego.LedbyHartmann,Kris,RappaportandLowenstein,thegroupbuiltuponunderstandingsofthesyntheticfunctionoftheegoasamediatorinpsychicfunctioning.Hartmanninparticulardistinguishedbetweenautonomousegofunctions(suchasmemoryandintellectwhichcouldbesecondarilyaffectedbyconflict)andsyntheticfunctionswhichwerearesultofcompromiseformation.These"EgoPsychologists"ofthe'50spavedawaytofocusanalyticworkbyattendingtothedefenses(mediatedbytheego)beforeexploringthedeeperrootstotheunconsciousconflicts.Inadditiontherewasburgeoninginterestinchildpsychoanalysis.Althoughcriticizedsinceitsinception,psychoanalysishasbeenusedasaresearchtoolintochildhooddevelopment,

[17]

andhasisstillusedtotreatcertainmentaldisturbances.

[18]

Inthe1960s,Freud'searlythoughtsonthechildhooddevelopmentoffemalesexualitywerechallenged;thischallengeledtothedevelopmentofavarietyofunderstandingsoffemalesexualdevelopment,manyofwhichmodifiedthetimingandnormalityofseveralofFreud'stheories(whichhadbeengleanedfromthetreatmentofwomenwithmentaldisturbances).Severalresearchers

[19]

followed

\o"KarenHorney"

KarenHorney

'sstudiesofsocietalpressuresthatinfluencethedevelopmentofwomen.MostcontemporaryNorthAmericanpsychoanalystsemploytheoriesthat,whilebasedonthoseofSigmundFreud,includemanymodificationsoftheoryandpracticedevelopedsincehisdeathin1939.

Inthe2000sthereareapproximately35traininginstitutesforpsychoanalysisintheUnitedStatesaccreditedbythe

\o"AmericanPsychoanalyticAssociation"

AmericanPsychoanalyticAssociation

[4]

[20]

whichisacomponentorganizationofthe

\o"InternationalPsychoanalyticalAssociation"

InternationalPsychoanalyticalAssociation

,andthereareover3,000graduatedpsychoanalystspracticingintheUnitedStates.TheInternationalPsychoanalyticalAssociationaccreditspsychoanalytictrainingcentersthroughouttherestoftheworld,includingcountriessuchasSerbia,France,Germany,Austria,Italy,Switzerland,andmanyothers,aswellasaboutsixinstitutesdirectlyintheU.S.FreudpublishedapaperentitledTheHistoryofthePsychoanalyticMovementin1914,GermanoriginalbeingfirstpublishedintheJahrbuchderPsychoanalyse.

[21]

[

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]Theories

Thepredominantpsychoanalytictheoriescanbegroupedintoseveraltheoretical"schools."Althoughthesetheoretical"schools"differ,mostofthemcontinuetostressthestronginfluenceofunconsciouselementsaffectingpeople'smentallives.Therehasalsobeenconsiderableworkdoneonconsolidatingelementsofconflictingtheory(cf.theworkofTheodoreDorpat,B.Killingmo,andS.Akhtar).Asinallfieldsofhealthcare,therearesomepersistentconflictsregardingspecificcausesofsomesyndromes,anddisputesregardingthebesttreatmenttechniques.Inthe2000s,psychoanalyticideasareembeddedinWesternculture,especiallyinfieldssuchas

\o"Childcare"

childcare

,

\o"Education"

education

,

\o"Literarycriticism"

literarycriticism

,

\o"Culturalstudies"

culturalstudies

,and

\o"Mentalhealth"

mentalhealth

,particularly

\o"Psychotherapy"

psychotherapy

.Thoughthereisa

\o"Mainstream"

mainstream

ofevolvedanalytic

\o"Idea"

ideas

,therearegroupswhofollowthe

\o"Precept"

precepts

ofoneormoreofthelatertheoreticians.Psychoanalyticideasalsoplayrolesinsometypesofliteraryanalysissuchas

\o"Archetypalliterarycriticism"

Archetypalliterarycriticism

.

[

\o"Editsection:Topographictheory"

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]Topographictheory

TopographictheorywasfirstdescribedbyFreudin"TheInterpretationofDreams"(1900)

[22]

[23]

ThetheorypositsthatthementalapparatuscanbedividedintothesystemsConscious,Pre-consciousandUnconscious.Thesesystemsarenotanatomicalstructuresofthebrainbut,rather,mentalprocesses.AlthoughFreudretainedthistheorythroughouthislifehelargelyreplaceditwiththeStructuraltheory.TheTopographictheoryremainsasoneofthemetapsychologicalpointsofviewfordescribinghowthemindfunctionsinclassicalpsychoanalytictheory.

[

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]Structuraltheory

Structuraltheorydividesthepsycheintotheid,theego,andthesuper-ego.Theidispresentatbirthastherepositoryofbasicinstincts,whichFreudcalled"Triebe"("drives"):unorganisedandunconscious,itoperatesmerelyonthe'pleasureprinciple',withoutrealismorforesight.Theegodevelopsslowlyandgradually,beingconcernedwithmediatingbetweentheurgingsoftheidandtherealitiesoftheexternalworld;itthusoperatesonthe'realityprinciple'.Thesuper-egoisheldtobethepartoftheegoinwhichself-observation,self-criticismandotherreflectiveandjudgementalfacultiesdevelop.Theegoandthesuper-egoarebothpartlyconsciousandpartlyunconscious.

[

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]Egopsychology

\o"Egopsychology"

Egopsychology

wasinitiallysuggestedbyFreudinInhibitions,SymptomsandAnxiety(1926).Thetheorywasrefinedby

\o"HeinzHartmann"

Hartmann

,Loewenstein,andKrisinaseriesofpapersandbooksfrom1939throughthelate1960s.LeoBellakwasalatercontributor.Thisseriesofconstructs,parallelingsomeofthelaterdevelopmentsofcognitivetheory,includesthenotionsofautonomousegofunctions:mentalfunctionsnotdependent,atleastinorigin,onintrapsychicconflict.Suchfunctionsinclude:sensoryperception,motorcontrol,symbolicthought,logicalthought,speech,abstraction,integration(synthesis),orientation,concentration,judgmentaboutdanger,realitytesting,adaptiveability,executivedecision-making,hygiene,andself-preservation.Freudnotedthatinhibitionisonemethodthatthemindmayutilizetointerferewithanyofthesefunctionsinordertoavoidpainfulemotions.Hartmann(1950s)pointedoutthattheremaybedelaysordeficitsinsuchfunctions.

Frosch(1964)describeddifferencesinthosepeoplewhodemonstrateddamagetotheirrelationshiptoreality,butwhoseemedabletotestit.Deficitsinthecapacitytoorganizethoughtaresometimesreferredtoasblockingorlooseassociations(

\o"EugenBleuler"

Bleuler

),andarecharacteristicoftheschizophrenias.Deficitsinabstractionabilityandself-preservationalsosuggestpsychosisinadults.Deficitsinorientationand

\o"Sensorium"

sensorium

areoftenindicativeofamedicalillnessaffectingthebrain(andtherefore,autonomousegofunctions).Deficitsincertainegofunctionsareroutinelyfoundinseverelysexuallyorphysicallyabusedchildren,wherepowerfuleffectsgeneratedthroughoutchildhoodseemtohaveerodedsomefunctionaldevelopment.

Egostrengths,laterdescribedby

\o"OttoF.Kernberg"

Kernberg

(1975),includethecapacitiestocontroloral,sexual,anddestructiveimpulses;totoleratepainfulaffectswithoutfallingapart;andtopreventtheeruptionintoconsciousnessofbizarresymbolicfantasy.Syntheticfunctions,incontrasttoautonomousfunctions,arisefromthedevelopmentoftheegoandservethepurposeofmanagingconflictualprocesses.Defensesaresyntheticfunctionsthatprotecttheconsciousmindfromawarenessofforbiddenimpulsesandthoughts.Onepurposeofegopsychologyhasbeentoemphasizethatsomementalfunctionscanbeconsideredtobebasic,ratherthanderivativesofwishes,affects,ordefenses.However,autonomousegofunctionscanbesecondarilyaffectedbecauseofunconsciousconflict.Forexample,apatientmayhaveanhystericalamnesia(memorybeinganautonomousfunction)becauseofintrapsychicconflict(wishingnottorememberbecauseitistoopainful).

Takentogether,theabovetheoriespresentagroupofmetapsychologicalassumptions.Therefore,theinclusivegro