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PAGE19GRE作文Argument模板+错误分类ArgumentExample调查1,Selectivesample:样本选择,一部分被排除在外Onemajorproblemisaboutthesampletheauthorstudiedinthesurvey.theauthorconsidersonly...(selectivesub-groups)although(thesub-groupstheauthorstudied)doconstituteasignificantpartof(thewholegeneralpopulation),however,(manyothersub-groups)areactuallyexcludedfromthesurvey.Perhaps...or...withoutrulingoutallthepossibilitiesabove,theauthorcouldnotmakeanygeneralconclusionabout...merelybasedon(selectivesub-groups).4,14,16,45,63,65,67,80,84,88,90,97,123,146,154,156,168,179,185,193,196,207,227,231,232,236,238,2392,Quantityofthesample样本数量(pointingoutthatthecurrentsampleistoosmallinitssize)(thefactcitedbytheauthor)couldhardlyillustratetheassumptionthat...becausetheauthorprovidesonlyNsamplesof(thegeneralpopulation),however,(thelimitedsample)mightnotberepresentativeofthewholegeneralgroup.thuswecannotaccepttheauthor’sconclusionthat...beforehe/shecouldprovidemorestatisticdataabout(thesituationofothersub-groups).10,14,33,40,53,69,95,115,123,132,139,150,154,158,167,179,180,188,191,2393,Dothestatisticsmakeanydifference:调查只调查了部分情况,忽略了一部分Theinformationprovidedbytheauthorisinsufficientfortheauthortoreachtheconclusion.thesurveyonlystudiesthesituationof...(an(some)insignificantcase(s)),however,manyothermoreessentialcases(relatedtothefinalconclusion)wereignoredinthesurvey.(weneedtoknowtheconditionofsomeothercasesaboutwhichwecaremore/thecurrentcasestudiedinthesurveymakeslittlesenseonthefinalconclusion,theauthorshouldprovidesomemoreimportantinformationaboutthecasehestudied.)Lackingfurtherstudiesontheseimportantissues,theauthorcouldnothastilyconcludethat...merelybasedontheinsignificantstudy.158,165,183,202,211,21717,115,147,2205,Whoconductedthesurvey:结果扭曲,调查者为了自己的利益Thereliabilityofthesurveyisalsoopentodoubtduetotheorganizationwhoconductedthesurvey.(theorganization)hasvestedinterestinthefinaldecision/conclusionwhichwasbasedontheresultofthesurvey,andthusmightdistorttheactualanswersoftherespondents.(theinstitution/individualsmaybenefitgreatlyfromtheresultiftheresultwasinterpretedaswascurrently)Thus,theauthorshouldciteasurveywhichisconductedbyanindependentinstitutiontoconvinceusthat(theassumption).115,1566,Whenwasthesurveyconducted:时间变化Theeffectivenessoftheresultofthesurveycitedbytheauthorasmainevidenceisalsoopentodoubt.Thesurveywasconduct(duringaspecialperiod,oralongtimeago),thusmaynotreflectthecurrentsituationsaccurately.Itistruethat(thesurveymayreflecttheopinionsorsituationsofrespondentsatthetimewhenitwasconducted),butpeople’sopiniontoward(thesubjectsurveyed)mayhavechangedgreatlyduringthepasttime(or,whilethisfactcouldnotsufficientlyillustratethat(thegeneralgroup)willalso...allthetime)(manyfactorsthatcouldinfluencethevalidityofthesurveywillchangeinthefuture,orrespondentsmayactdifferentlyduringtheperiodwhenthesurveywasconducted,thustheresultofthesurveycouldnotrepresenttheall-timesituation.)Thus,amorerecentsurvey,ifasurveyisneededatall,shouldbeprovidedtosufficientlyillustratetheauthor’sassumptionthat...7,Vaguedata:数据模糊—没有基数Theinformationconcerning...isnotaccurateenoughforustoevaluatetheactualconditionof...Theauthoronlyinformsusthat(thepercentage/fractionofsub-groupswhich...butwedonotknowthebaseamountof(thegeneralgroup)(ifthebaseamountorcorrespondingfractionsvary,theconclusionwouldbedifferent.)Forlackofdetailedinformationabout(thebaseamount/fractionof)...wecanhardlyassess...4,5,8,9,11,12,14,16,20,22,23,25,27,31,32,39,42,44,49,52,55,68,70,71,73,77,79,87,89,100,103,120,122,124,130,133,134,135,141,143,144,145,155,159,165,175,177,182,183,189,194,196,199,200,203,204,206,211,212,214,216,222,223,231,236,2388,Incompleteinformation:数据不完整Theauthordoesnotprovidecompleteinformationconcerning...inillustratingthat...Theauthoronlyinformsusthat...butwhatwecaremoreaboutisthat...whichisnotprovidedbytheauthor.(someothersubstantialinformationareneededforustoassessthesoundnessoftheargument,andtheconclusionwouldvarygreatlywhenotherconditionsvaried.)Forlackofdetailedinformationabout...wecanhardlyevaluate...6,7,8,10,14,15,17,18,20,21,24,27,29,30,32,35,36,38,39,42,43,44,46,49,52,54,64,65,66,68,70,71,73,77,79,81,82,83,84,85,87,88,89,90,91,92,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,103,104,105,107,108,116,117,119,120,127,130,135,137,141,143,144,145,147,150,152,155,161,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,174,175,179,180,181,183,184,185,191,192,193,198,199,200,203,205,206,211,212,213,214,215,216,217,218,219,221,222,224,225,226,228,229,231,232,233,235,237,238,239,240,241,2429,Aretherespondentsforthrightwhenansweringthequestions:回答者不真实Thereliabilityoftherespondents...answerstothesurvey’squestionisnotsufficientlyjustifiedtosupporttheconclusion...Thereispossibilitythattherespondentsmaynottellthetruthabout..(answeringthequestionshonestlymayleadtosomeundesirableconsequencesfortherespondents,thustheymayevadethecrucialpoint,orevenlieintheiranswers.)Undersuchcircumstances,itisalmostimpossibleforustoexpecttherespondentstoprovideaccurateinformationabouttheiropiniontoward...92,199,211,24210,Aretherespondentsrepresentative:回答者没有代表性Weshouldalsonoticethattherespondentsstudiedinthesurveymaynotrepresentthegeneralgroupof...Weallknowthatinmanycases,peoplewhoareinterestedin...mightbegenerallymorelikelytorespondtothesurveythanotherpeopleare,oraremorewillingtoexpresstheirownopinionsandpositionsontheissueof...(otherpeoplewhodidnotrespondmayholdatotallydifferentpositiontowardtheissuestudied,andtheauthorshouldincludethosepeopleinthestudytopresentamoreconvincingresult.)Withoutconsideringthesituationofothergroupsofpeople,theresultofthesurveyinitselfcouldnotjustifiablyillustratethat...11,15,17,28,34,40,43,52,55,57,62,65,76,95,102,111,115,117,153,154,161,167,168,174,194,201,206,212,218,224,235比较11,Falseanalogy:错误类比AB,A适合BIntheargumenttheauthorrecommendsAtocarryoutsame(policies,actions,solutionson...asB,buttheanalogybetweenthemmightbeunsubstantiated.TheauthorfailstoillustratethatAandBaresimilarenoughateveryaspectandareindeedcomparable.WhileitistruethatAandBsharesomecommongroundon...therearestillsomeobviousdifferencesbetweenthem.(manydifferencesexistbetweenAandBandthesedifferencesmaywellrenderthepolicies(actions,solutions,etc)provedtobeeffectiveforAmightnothavethesameeffectivenessforB)BeforeAdecidetocopyB’sexperiences,theauthorshouldtakethesedifferencesintoaccountandmakecarefulstudyonthecomparabilityofthetwo(cities,companies,schools,etc).2,4,9,12,13,16,18,20,25,26,28,29,31,35,38,39,41,42,43,44,55,56,67,72,89,91,92,94,97,99,102,108,109,110,116,119,124,125,131,132,133,149,152,155,160,162,169,177,180,182,186,187,192,198,204,205,209,210,211,212,218,226,230,232,235,236,237,238,23912,Incompletecomparison/selectivecomparison/exparteinformation:错误对比AB,A不一定比B好TheauthorhastilyimpliesthatAissuperiortoBin...butthecomparisonbetweenAandBisincomplete.Theauthoronlycompares...however,therearemyriadoffactorswhich,ifdifferinthesecases,wouldbringabouttotallydifferentresultforthecomparison.(manyotherfactorswouldinfluencetheresultwhileignoredbytheauthorintheargument)Withoutanyfurtherconsiderationaboutthesefactors,theauthorcouldnotconvinceusthat(AisbetterthanBincertainaspect)merelybasedonanincompletecomparison.13,Confusingcomparisonandvariation:只对比了一部分的变化orviceversa.Intheargumenttheauthorprovidesthevariationin...toillustratethat...Althoughthevariationin...couldpartlyprovethat...however,weallknowthattodemonstrate...thecomparisonbetweenAandBisactuallymoreconvincingandnecessary.:(thecomparisonbetweenthoseentitiescouldbemoreconvincinginillustratingtheconclusion)Lackingcomparisonbetween...wecouldnotassessif...23,48,63,85,106,132,135,168,173,179,180,186,188,206,216,224,240Incompletecomparison/exparteinformation:2,4,17,24,34,49,51,57,60,63,64,77,81,82,85,93,96,98,101,103,105,109,114,126,129,131,132,139,151,159,162,166,167,172,173,179,186,187,188,193,200,203,211,212,214,216,220,222,231,233,234,238,24114,Unrelatedconcepts:偷换概念Inillustratingtheassumptionthat...theauthorcommitsafallacyofhastygeneralization.:TheauthorcitesAtoproveB,however,AisnotagoodindicationofB.(therearebasicdifferencesbetweenAandB,thusAcouldnotbeproperlyusedtoillustrateB)TheauthoroughttomakecarefulandcleardifferentiationbetweenAandBbeforewecouldevaluateiftheinferencethat...isjustified.1,3,4,10,11,16,20,23,29,31,34,35,36,38,40,44,48,49,53,55,58,63,67,68,72,77,80,81,85,87,88,89,91,93,96,101,105,106,107,114,120,121,124,130,132,133,134,139,140,143,146,153,155,156,160,161,166,167,172,173,175,181,183,187,188,190,193,194,196,198,199,200,201,Hastygeneralization:38,54,56,59,61,66,81,89,98,137,140,154203,212,214,215,216,217,218,220,221,223,231,233,234,235,239,24115,Changingscopes:偷换范围Thefactthat...couldsufficientlysubstantiatetheconclusionthat...sincetheargumentisbasedonlyon(somespecialcases)andtheauthordoesnotdifferentiatebetweenthe...of(differentsubjects).Althoughtheauthor’sinferencethat...mightbetrueforsomecases,forexample,...Unfortunately,thisisnottrueofeveryindividual(inthegeneralgroup).(othersubjectsmayhavetotallydifferentsituationthustheauthor’sinferencecouldnotbeproperlyappliedtothem.)Unlesstheauthorcandemonstratethat(theconditionofothersubjectsissimilartothatofthecasestudied),thegeneralconclusioncannotbereachedmerelybasingonthesespecialandlimitedcases.3,6,8,10,19,22,23,28,29,40,41,44,45,49,51,60,70,80,83,84,87,90,91,93,94,95,96,97,98,113,115,116,117,118,119,121,126,129,130,131,134,135,145,147,148,150,154,156,158,165,171,172,175,176,180,185,187,188,193,194,195,203,205,206,207,211,213,217,218,220,223,230,233,234,24216,Inferringafutureconditionfromapastcondition:过去不能推未来Intheargumenttheauthorsuggeststhatwecan(solvecurrentproblemsorachievecurrentgoals)throughmethodswhichhavesuccessfullysolvedthesamekindofproblemsinthepast.Thereisahiddenassumptionassumedbytheauthorthatallconditionsandfactorsuponwhichtheeffectivenessof(themethod)dependhaveremainedunchangedduringthepast(Nyears).However,manyfactorscouldhavebeenchangedduringthepastyears.(manyconditionsandfactorscouldhavevaried,whichmightrenderthesolutionswhichwereprovedtobeeffectiveinthepastmightnothavethesameeffectivenessincurrentdaysorinthefuture.)Withouttakingintoaccountalltheseconstantlychangingfactors,theauthorcouldnotconvinceusthattheproposedsolutioncouldbeusedtosolvecurrentproblemssuccessfully.1,2,4,5,8,11,13,15,18,20,21,22,23,25,30,32,36,37,48,52,61,62,65,67,68,73,78,85,87,93,94,95,100,116,119,130,134,136,138,140,146,151,158,161,167,168,171,183,190,201,204,208,209,213,216,218,219,225,226,230,237,240,24130,Lackofcontrolledexperiment/comparison:没考虑其他变量Theauthorunfairlyassumesthatitis...thatresultedin...Thecausalrelationshipisconvincingonlyiftheauthorcoulddemonstratethatallotherfactorsthatmightaffect...remainedconstantduringthesameperiod.(pointingoutthatcorrespondingcontrolledexperimentisneeded,orexplaininghowtheexperimentshouldbeconducted.)Specifically,weneedtoknow(theexperimentresultofonegroupofthesubjects),WithoutappropriatecomparisonbetweenAandB,theassumptionthat...isunwarranted.18,23,41,59,75,76,85,103,122,128,153,167,168,175,176,180,206,207,224,236,237,241,242解决办法17,Sufficiencyandnecessityofasolution:解决办法不够有力Theauthorassumesthattheproposedactionsarebothsufficientandnecessaryfor(achievingcertaingoal).Tosolvetheproblemsuccessfully,manyotherfundamentalrequirementsmustbefulfilled.(manyotherimportantworksmustbedone.)Furthermore,manyotheravailablemethodsbesides(theauthor’sproposal)couldalsobeusedtoachievethesamepurpose.(manyothereffectivemethodscouldalsobeadopted.)Beforetheauthormakeacarefulandthoroughcomparisonbetweentheeffectivenessofhisownproposalandotherpossiblemethods,theauthor’sproposalshouldnotbehastilycarriedout.3,7,8,9,10,12,18,19,20,24,25,26,28,30,39,41,42,43,48,52,54,59,60,64,65,68,69,74,79,80,82,83,85,86,87,90,91,94,96,97,98,99,100,102,104,105,106,107,108,110,111,112,115,116,117,122,123,124,125,127,128,129,131,134,135,136,137,139,140,141,145,146,147,149,152,153,155,157,159,161,162,163,164,166,168,169,170,172,173,175,177,178,181,183,185,187,188,189,190,191,192,194,195,196,197,200,201,204,205,206,208,209,211,212,213,215,217,219,222,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,232,236,237,238,239,240,24218,Failingtoconsiderthefeasibilityoftheconclusion:解决办法没有可行性Thefeasibilityofthearguer’sproposalcanalsobecastdoubton.Theproposalreliesonanassumptionthat(theproposalcouldbesuccessfullycarriedout)however,theassumptionmightbeunwarrantedduetosomecriticalobstacles.(possibleobstaclestotheeffectivenessofthesolution.)Unlesstheauthorcoulddemonstratethatthoseobstaclescouldbeeffectivelyovercome,theproposalmightbepracticallyunfeasible.2,24,28,29,39,42,43,51,64,71,86,90,99,102,125,129,132,137,139,141,143,155,163,164,169,172,175,176,178,187,189,191,194,195,204,208,209,210,211,212,217,226,228,230,232,23319,Failingtoweightheadvantageanddisadvantagethoroughly:没考虑解决方法带来的坏处Inclaimingthat...theauthorneedstodomorecomprehensiveresearchonbothpositiveandnegativeeffectsoftheproposal.Althoughtheproposalcouldbeadoptedto(solvetheproblem)toacertaindegree,however,carryingouttheproposalmayactuallybringaboutmoreharmfuleffects.(possibleharmfuleffectsignoredbytheauthor.)Undersuchscenario,adoptingtheauthor’sproposalwouldharm,ratherthanbenefit,(theauthor’spurpose).Incompletethought:1,10,11,15,17,24,27,29,31,32,34,35,37,47,49,50,51,52,53,54,58,59,66,69,71,73,78,84,86,87,90,95,97,98,100,104,107,108,110,111,120,123,124,125,126,128,130,134,136,142,143,144,145,147,151,169,177,193,202,236,239Failingtoweightheadvantageanddisadvantagethoroughly:1,2,5,9,13,14,21,22,23,24,38,39,40,43,44,52,55,60,62,63,65,67,69,71,72,76,80,82,84,86,89,92,94,96,98,101,102,104,105,107,108,111,112,114,118,119,122,124,125,127,128,129,133,136,151,152,157,160,163,164,168,169,170,172,173,174,176,178,180,181,182,184,185,186,188,189,191,192,193,200,201,204,206,208,210,213,215,217,218,221,224,226,227,228,229,230,231,232,234,237,24220,Falsedilemma:两者选一,没考虑其他解决办法Inexplaining...theauthorispresentingafalsedilemma.Theauthorsimplyassumesthat(thesituationwouldbeeitherAorB),whilethetwo...arenotnecessarilymutuallyexclusive.(manyothersolutions/explanationscouldbemorejustifiable.)Beforerulingoutallthepossibilitiesabove,theauthorcouldnotconvinceusthatthereareonlythosetwopossibleexplanationsforustoaccept.5,33,41,47,82,93,108,113,138,148,150,166,175,182,184,185,190,195,196,202,204,205,213,218,220,233因果关系21,Non-causalrelationship:没有因果关系,其他因素的影响Theauthorunfairlyassumesthatitis...thatresultedin...:Butwecanfindnoconcreteevidencetosubstantiatetheinevitablerelationshipbetween...and...(manyotherfactorscouldalsoleadtotheresult/theauthorshouldconductcontrolledstudytodemonstratethecausalrelationship)Inshort,theauthorcouldnothastilyconcludethat...istheonlypossiblereasonfor...beforetakingabovefactorsintoaccount.1,3,4,6,7,9,12,15,18,19,20,22,26,27,28,33,35,38,39,42,43,44,45,47,48,49,54,55,56,62,63,64,69,70,74,76,77,78,79,80,81,85,88,90,94,96,97,98,106,109,110,112,113,116,119,120,121,122,124,125,131,132,133,135,136,137,139,141,144,145,147,149,150,156,158,159,160,162,167,168,169,171,172,176,181,187,190,192,193,194,199,201,207,209,212,218,220,221,222,223,224,225,228,231,232,235,236,24122,Confusingthecauseandtheeffect:不是A导致B,而是B导致A(少见)IntheprocessofreasoningtheauthorassumesthatAisthereasonforB.However,theauthormayconfusethecauseandtheeffect.(thereispossibilitythatitisBthatactuallycausesA)Theauthorfailstoruleoutthepossibilitythat(BresultsinA).Sincetheauthorhasnotadequatelytakethispossibilityintoaccount,theassumptionthat...isuntenable.34,72,79,88,105,114,126,129,133,145,153,154,211,227,23223,Confusingconcurrencewithcausality:同时发生不为因果Themostimportantproblemistheunderlyingassumptionthatitis...thatresultedin...Theauthoronlypointsoutthatthetwoeventsoccurredduringthesameperiod,however,weallknowthatmerelyacoincidenceoftwoeventscouldnotsufficientlydemonstrateacausalrelationshipbetweenthem.(manyotherfactorscouldalsoleadtotheresult/theauthorshouldconductcontrolledstudytodemonstratethecausalrelationship)Manyotherfactorscouldalsoleadto...whichmightinclude...Withoutrulingoutsuchfactors,wecouldnotbeconvincedthat...istheactualcauseof...1,53,59,60,72,75,90,91,101,105,129,142,153,173,23824,Posthoc,ergopropterhoc:前后发生不为因果Theauthorconcludesthat...isresponsiblefor...theassumptionisbasedonthemerefactthat...occurredafter...however,thesequenceofthetwoevents,initself,doesnotsufficientlyprovethattheformercausedthelaterone.(manyotherfactorscouldalsoleadtotheresult/theauthorshouldconductcontrolledstudytodemonstratethecausalrelationship)...mighthasresultedfromotherfactors,suchas...Withoutrulingoutthesepossiblescenarios,theauthorcouldnotestablishacausalrelationshipbetween...and...2,9,16,25,30,92,99,102,110,119,123,170,180,195,205,215,218,230,237,239,242证据25,Insufficientevidence:证据不足Theauthorclaimsthat...byshowingthathowever,butthispieceofinformationinitselfisfarfromsufficienttodemonstratetheassumptionthat...Although(theinformationprovidedbytheauthor)mayhassomerelationwith...(weneedmorecriticalimportantinformationaboutthecasestudied.)Moresolidevidenceareneededbeforewecouldbeconvincedthat...5,6,7,14,18,23,24,27,29,31,33,36,37,40,44,46,47,52,54,56,57,58,61,67,69,70,73,74,81,93,94,110,111,115,117,130,131,136,138,143,148,150,155,157,165,171,179,190,193,198,201,202,204,211,213,223,231,236,237,238,241Failingtoconsiderthecredibilityoftheevidence:46,47,66,72,76,88,118,136,151,176,22626,Unwarrantedassumption/credibilityoftheevidence:无证据假设,攻击背景Theassumptionthat...isopentodoubt,sincetheauthordoesnotprovideanysingleevidencetosubstantiatetheassumption.(manyotherpossibilitiesmightrendertheassumptionsuspect.)Givenotherpossibilitiesabout...theauthorcouldnothastilyassumesthat...6,8,11,12,13,14,15,17,21,22,23,25,28,33,50,53,56,62,64,66,67,74,75,78,83,84,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,95,100,101,102,104,105,108,110,112,113,114,118,120,121,122,125,126,127,128,129,130,132,134,136,137,140,142,144,145,146,148,151,152,156,157,160,161,163,164,169,170,172,174,177,178,179,181,191,192,194,195,197,202,204,205,206,208,210,212,216,218,219,221,222,223,225,228,231,235,236,239,24227,Definitioncritique:对某一专用名词没有解释,比如药Oneprobleminvolvesthedefinitionof...Theauthorfailstogiveacleardefinitionof...thuswecouldnoteval
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