砂型铸造-外文翻译

附录附录1SandCastingThefirststageintheproductionofsandcastingsmustbethedesignandmanufactureofasuitablepattern.Castingpatternsaregenerallymadefromhardwordandthepatternhastobemadelargerthanthefinishedcastingsizetoallowfortheshrinkagethattakesplaceduringsolidificationandcooling.Theextentofthisshrinkagevarieswiththetypeofmetaloralloytobecast.Forallbutthesimplestshapesthepatternwillbemadeintwoormorepiecestofacilitatemoulding.Ifahollowcastingistobemadethepatterndesignwillincludeextensionpiecessothatspacestoacceptthesandcorearemouldedintosand.Theseadditionalspacesinthemouldaretermedcoreprints.Sandmouldsfortheproductionofsmallandmedium-sizedcastingsaremadeinamouldingbox.Themouldismadeintwoormorepartsinorderthatthepatternmayberemoved.Thedraghalfofthemouldboxisplacedonaflatfirmboardandthedraghalfofthepatternplacedinposition.Facingsandissprinkledoverthepatternandthenthemouldboxisfilledwithmouldingsand.Thesandisrammedfirmlyaroundthepattern.Thisprocessoffillingandrammingmaybedonebyhandbutmouldproductionisautomatedinalargefoundrywiththemouldboxesmovingalongaconveyor,firstlytobefilledwithsandfromhoppersandthentopassundermechanicalhammersforramming.Whenrammingofthesandiscomplete,excesssandisremovedtoleaveasmoothsurfaceflushwiththeedgesofthemouldingbox.Thecompleteddragisnowturnedoverandtheupper,orcope,portionofthemouldingboxpositionedoverit.Thecopehalfofthepatternisplacedinposition,correctalignmentbeingensuredbymeansofsmalldowelpins.Patternsforthenecessaryfeeder,runnerandrisersarealsoplacedsoastogiveanevendistributionofmetalintothemouldcavity.Therisersshouldcoincidewiththehighestreadilyescapefromthemould.Thesizesofrisersshouldbesuchthatthemetalinthemdoesnotfreezetoorapidly.Animportantfunctionofariseristoactasreservoirofliquidmetaltofeedsolidificationwithinthemould.Athincoatingofdrypartingsandissprinkledintomouldatthisstage.Thisistopreventthecopeanddragstickingtogetherwhenthecopehalfismoulded.Thecopeisnowfilledwithmouldingsandandthisisrammedfirmlyintoshapeinthesamemannerasinthemakingofthedrag.Aftertherammingofsandinthecopeiscompletedthetwohalvesofthemouldingboxarecarefullyseparated.Atthisstageventingofthemouldingboxarecarefullyseparated.Atthisstageventingofthemouldcanbedone,ifnecessary,toincreasethepermeabilityofthemould.Afterventingthepatternsarecarefullyremovedfrombothcopeanddrag,andagateorgatesarecarefullycuttoconnecttherunnerchannelwiththemaincavity.Gatesshouldbesitedtoallowforentryintomouldwithaminimumofturbulence.Anyloosesandisgentlyblownawayandifacoreistobeuseditthecopeuponthedraganditisthenreadyforuse.Liquidmetalispouredsmoothlyintothemouldviathefeeder.Pouringceaseswhenliquidmetalappearsatthetopoftherisersandthefeederchannelisalsofull.Whenthemetalthathasbeenpouredintoasandmouldhasfullysolidifiedthemouldisbrokenandcastingisremoved.Thecastingstillhastherunnerandrisersattachedtoitandtherewillbesandadheringtoportionsofthesurface.Runnersandrisersarecutoffandreturnedtothemeltingfurnace.Sandcoresarebrokenandadherentsandiscleanedfromthesurfacebyvibrationorbysandblastingwithdrysand.Anyfinsormetalflashformedatmouldpartinglinesareremovedbygrindingandthecastingsarethenreadyforinspection.EngineAnengineisadevicethatusestheenergyinafueltodowork.Theenergyinthechemicalsofthefuelisturnedintoheatenergy.Theheatisthenusedtomovethemetalpartsofamachine.Therearemanykindsoffuel.Mostenginesusegasoline,oil,kerosene,coal,orcoke.Theheatthatcomesfromburningthefuelmakesagasexpand.Thisexpandgasdrivespistonsorturbineblades.Thepistonsorturbinesturnshafts.Theturningshaftsmovegearsandotherwheels.Weusetheserotatingwheelsandshaftstomoveautomobiles,airplanes,andothertransport.Wecanalsousethemforpumping,drilling,digging,andothersuchactivities.Earlyenginesburnedcoalorwoodtoheatwater.Thesteamwasusedtodrivesteamengine.Untilthemiddleofthiscentury,mostlocomotiveswerepoweredbysteam.Atthebeginningofthecentury,evensomeautomobileswererunonsteam.Westillusesteamengines,butmostofthemarebeingreplacedbymoreefficientengines.Todaywehavepowerfulgasolineanddieselenginestoworkforus.Thesteamengineisanexternalcombustionengine.Thismeansthatfueliscombustion,orburned,outsidethecylinderthatproducespower.SincetheinventionofthesteamenginebyJamesWattin1769s,steamengineshadagreateffectontheindustrialrevolutionintheeighteenthcentury.Untilthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,mostlocomotiveswerepoweredbysteam.Attheendofthecentury,evensomeautomobileswererunonsteam.Todaymostofthefunctionsofsteamenginehavebeentakenoverbyinternalcombustionenginesfueledbygasolineanddieseloil.However,therearemanysteamenginesinuseatsea.Steamisalsousedtogenerateelectricity.Thekindofsteamenginethatisusedtodaydoesnothavecylinders.Itisgenerallyasteamturbine.ThesteamturbinewasinventedbySirCharlesParsons.Steamturbinescanhandlesteamathigherpressuresthanpistonenginescan,andtheyaremorecompactthanpistonenginesofsimilarpower.ThegasolineengineTheengineofmostautomobilesandsmallvehicleusegasolineasfuel.Thegasolineengineisacombustionengine.Thefuelisburnedincombustion(burning)chambersinsidetheengine.Thecombustionchambersareplacedatoneendofthecylinders.Pistonsmoveupanddowninthecylinders.Theyarepushedbythehotgasesfromtheburningfuel.Whenthefuelismixedwithairitburnssoquicklythatitexplodes.Thecombustionchambersandcylinderapartlikeabomb,theexplosionsimplykickshandagainsttheheadofthepiston.Itpushesitasfarasitcan.Eachmovementofapistonupordowninitscylinderiscalledastroke.Mostgasolineenginesworkonafour-strokecycle.Thismeansthateachpistongoesupanddowntwiceforeachexplosion.Thatmakesfourmovementorstrokes.Thiscycleofeventsisrepeatedoverandoveragain.Onthefirstdownstroke,thepistonmovestothelowestpartofthecylinder.Amixtureofgasolinedropletsandairisdrawnintothecylinderaboveit.Nowthepistonmovesupagain.Thisisitssecondstroke.Itsqueezesthemixtureintoasmallspace.Anelectriclightsthemixture,anditexplodes.Thepistonisforcedownagainforitsthirdstroke.Thisiscalledthepowerstroke.Forthefourthstroke,thepistonmovestothetopagain.Thistimeitpushestheburntgasesoutofthecylinder.Thegasesleavetheengineasexhaustfumes.Thefirstenginethatusedthefour-strokecyclewasmadeinabout1876.ItwasdesignedbyaGermanengineer,AugustOtto.Heusedcoalgas,notgasoline.ThefirstenginestoburngasolineweredevelopedbyKarlBenzandGottlieb.Thesetwomenwerefamousasautomobilepioneers.Apistonsimplygoingupanddowncannotpushanautomobilealong.Itsmovementmustbechangedtoaturningmovement.Todothis,acrankshaftisused.Eachpistonoftheengineislinkedtopartofthecrankshaft.Eachpushitgivesmakestheshaftturn.Thespinningshaftpassesthepowerontotheautomobile’stransmissionsystem.Itusuallydoesthisthroughaheavyflywheel.Thetransmissionsystemtransmitspowertotheclutchandtothepropellershaft,throughagearbox.Thepropellershaftdrivestheroadwheelsbymeansofaxles.Tokeepanautomobileenginegoing,thereneedtobeseveralsystems.Theremustbeafuelsystem.Thishastosupplygasolinetotheenginecylindersintherightamounts.Ithasalsotomixitwiththerightamountofair,sothatitwillexplodeproperly.Theremustbeanignitionsystem.Thishastoprovidesparkstoignitetheexplosivemixturefatexactlytherighttime.Therehastobeacoolingsystem,otherwisetheenginewouldoverheat.Thelubricationsystemmustkeepallthemovingpartsoiledandmovingfreely.Toomuchfrictioncauseswearofthemetalandmakestheengineoverheat.TheengineunitGasolineenginehastwobasicparts.Theyarecalledthecylinderheadandthecylinderblock.Thecylinderblockismachinedfromsolidmetal.Themetalsusuallycastsidethecylinderblocksarethecylinders.Thewallsofthecylindershavetobeveryaccuratelymade,andarehighlypolished.Thepistonsthatmoveupanddowninthecylindersmustbeaccuratelymade,too.Theyhavespringybandsofmetalaroundthemtopresstightagainstthecylinderwallsandstopgasesleaking.Thebandsarecalledpistonrings.Theyareoftenmadeofaluminumalloyforstrengthandlightness.Anenginemayhaveanynumberofcylinders.Theymaybearrangedinaline,orinoppositepairs.Theyareoftenarrangedina“V”shape.Inmanyairplaneswithpitonengines,thecylindersarearrangedinaringaroundthecrankshaft.Thelowerpartofthecylinderblockiscalledthecrankcase.Thisiswherethecrankshaftlies.Thecrankshaftislinkedtoeachpitonbyaconnectingrod.Thecrankshaftismadeinasinglepiece.Itmustbetoughandaccuratelymachined.Itmayspinasmanyas6000timesaminute.Itchangesup-and-downmotion.Itdoesthisbymeansofcranks,oneforeachpiston.Thecranksaresetatdifferentanglesroundtheshaft.Eachpistongivesapushtoitscrankduringitspowerstroke.Duringtheotherthreestrokes,thecrankpushesthepistonup,downandupagain.Theheavyflywheelisboltedtooneendofthecrankshaft.Itkeepstheshaftturningsmoothlybetweenthepowerstrokes.Strongmainbearingssupportthecrankshaftinitscase.Thecylinderheadisboltedtothecylinderblock.Insideitarethecombustionchambers.Eachcombustionchamberisaspaceaboveapistoninsideacylinder.Thisiswheretheexplosionofthemixtureoffuelandairtakesplace.Asparkplugissetintothetopofthechamber.Eachchamberhasapairofvalves.Thereisaninletvalvetoallowthefuelandairmixtureintothechamber.Theothervalveisanoutletorexhaustvalve.Throughthispasstheburntgasesaftertheexplosion.Thevalvesareopenedandclosedbypushrodsandsprings.Thepushrodsaremovedupanddownbylinkswiththecrankshaft.Thelinkageisthroughaturningshaftcalledthecamshaft.Tocarrywatertocooltheengine,therearepassagesinthemetalofthecylinderheadandcylinderblock.Oilpassesthroughotherpassages.Betweenthecylinderheadandblockisagasket.Thisisathinplateofmetalthatactsasaseal.Itisputinwhenthepartsoftheengineareboltedtogether.Itisoftenmadeofcopper.ThefuelsystemFuelsystemoftheenginesuppliesthegasolinetobeburnt.Thegasolineisstoredinalargetank.Inapowerfulcar,thetankholdsmanygallonsoffuel.Thetankisplacedwellawayfromtheengine,toreducetheriskoffire.Thegasolineispumpedthroughafuelline.Thepumpmaybedrivenbylinkswiththeenginecamshaft.Sometimesithasitsownelectricmotor.Beforethegasolinereachesthecylinders,itmustbemixedwithair.Thefuellineleadstothecarburetor.Inthecarburetorthegasolineisforcedthroughafinenozzle,orjet.Itformsasprayofsmalldroplets.Thedropletsvaporizeastheymixwiththeair.Nowthemixtureisreadyforignition.Thespeedoftheengineiscontrolledbyavalve.Openingandclosingthethrottlevalveregulatestheamountofmixtureleavingthecarburetor.Fromthecarburetorthemixturepassestotheinletvalvesofthecombustionchambers.Themixtureisdeliveredthroughasetoftubescalledtheinletmanifold.Asimilarsetoftubestakesawayexhaustgasesformtheexhaustvalvesofthecombustionchambers.Thisiscalledtheexhaustmanifold.Itleadstotheoutsideairthroughtheexhaustpipe.Insomeautomobiles,thefuelisdeliveredbyadifferentsystem.Insteadofpassingthroughacarburetor,thefuelissprayedintotheairstreamjustbeforetheinletvalves.Itissprayedinsmallamounts,whicharecarefullymetered.Thesystemiscalledfuelinjection.TheignitionsystemMixtureinsideeachcylindermustbemadetoexplode.Asparkisusedtodothis.Thesparkmustjumpacrossthegapinthesparkplugatexactlytherighttimes,eachoftheautombile’scylindersmustfireinturn.Theignitionsystemdependsuponveryaccuratetiming.Ifthesparksareafractionofasecondtooearlyortoolate,theenginewillnotrunproperly.Theelectricitytomakethesparkscomesfromtheautomobile’selectricstoragebattery.Thisbatteryiskeptchargedbyadynamo,orgenerator,runbytheengine.Thebatterysupplieselectricityatonlyabout12volts.Tomakeaspark,voltsarerequired.Thevoltagefromthebatteryisboosteduptoabout30000voltsbymeansofatransformer.Thetransformeriscalledtheignitioncoil.Theignitioncoilsupplieshighvoltagetothedistributor.Thisisadevicethatdistributesinsurges,orpulses,toeachofthesparkplugsinturn.Whenasurgeofelectricityathighvoltagereachesaplug,asparkleapsacrossasmallgap.Thesparkissohotthatitmakesthemixtureofgasolineandairigniteandexplode.ThecoolingsystemHeatproducedbyburningthegasolineintheengineisverygreat.Thetemperatureinsideeachcombustionchambermayreachmorethan1000℃[over1800].Theenginemustbeconstantlycooled.Thecoolingsystemsuppliescoolwaterthroughchannelscalledwaterjack.Thewaterjacketssurroundthecylinders.Theycarryawaytheexcessheatasthewaterpassesthroughthem.Thehotwaterisledawaytobecooledinradiator.Theradiatorisasystemofmanytubes,linkedtogether,withspacesbetweenthem.Thehotwaterlosesitsheattotheair.Thecooledwateristhenpumpedtotheengineagain.Someautomobilesdonothaveawater-cooledsystem.Theyuseaircooling.AirfromthefrontOftheautomobileisblownoverthecylinderblockandthecylinderhead.Theengineisfilledwithspecialcoolingfins,stickingoutintotheairstream.Thesehelptheheadtoradiatemorequickly.Air-cooledenginestendtobenoisierthanwater-cooledengines.Inawater-cooledengine,thewaterjackethelpstoabsorbtheenginenoise.Topreventthewaterinthecoolingsystemfromfreezingincoolweather,antifreezeisusuallyaddedinwater.Thisisoftenethyleneglycolorasimilarcompound.ThelubricationsystemOilisneededtokeeptheengine’spartsfromwearingtooquickly.Astoragetankofoil,calledthesump,isattachedunderthecrankcase.Theoilispumpedthroughchannelstoallthemainbearingsandthebig-endbearings.Eventuallyitreachesthesumpagain.Itpassesthroughafiltertoremovedirtbeforeitisusedagain.Whenevermetalsurfacesrubagainstothers,tingparticlesarewornoff.Theoilpicksthemupasitflowsbetweenthesurfaces.Theyaretrappedbytheoilfilter.Thefiltermustbechangedregularly.Theoilitselfgraduallyburnsandbecomesimpure.Itmustbereplacedatintervals.ThewankelengineThewankelengineisagasolineenginethatworkswithoutpistons.ItwasinventedinGermanybyFelixWankel.Hestarteddevelopmentofitin1956.Thepistonsinanordinarygasolineenginemustmoveupanddown,orbackwardsandforwards.Thiskindofmotioniscalledreciprocatingmotion.Itneedstobeconvertedintoaturningmotion(rotarymotion)byacrankshaft.InaWankelengine,burningtheflueproducesarotarymotiondirectly.Theseisnoneedforacrankshaft,Itisarotaryengine.AWankelenginehasaspeciallydesignedcombustionchamber.Itisroughlyanellipse,,Inshape.Insideisrotor.Therotorisshapedwithbulging,roundedsides.Thoughthecenteroftherotorpassesthedrivingshaft,ithasteethlikeagearwheelthatmeetteethinsidetherotor.Therotorisshapedsothatitscornersjusttouchthewallsofthechamber.Therotorcanmoveupanddownandalsosidetosideasitturns.Therotordividesthechamberintothreeparts.Astherotortheshapesofthethreepartschange.Theyactlikethreeseparatecombustionchambers.Asinanordinaryengine,therearesparkplugs,aninletportforthegasolineandairmixture,andanoutletportfortheexhaustgases.Therotorturnssothateachpartofchamberinturnmeetstheinlet.Thegasolineandairmixtureisdrawnin.Thisislikethefirstpistondownstrokeofanordinaryengine.Furtherturningsweepsthemixtureroundintoasmallerspace.Themixtureiscompressed.Thisislikethesecondstroke.Nowthesparkplugsfires.Theexplosiondrivestherotorfurtheraround.Thisisthepowerstroke.Whentherotorhasturnedalittlefurther,theexhaustgasesarepushedfromthechamberthroughtheexhaustport.Theprocessiscontinuous.Ithappensaseachpartofthechambersweepsround.TheWankelenginehasseveraladvantagesoveranordinaryengine.Ithasfewermovingparts.Thereislessvibration.Itislighter,itcostslesstoproduce.However,therearedifficulties.Themaindifficultyisensuringthattheseals,wherethecornersoftherotormeetthechamberwalls,aregastight.TheWankelengineisusedsuccessfullyinseveralkindsofautomobile.ThedieselengineThedieselengineisatypeofinternalcombustionenginethatisusedforheavy-dutywork.Ituseslow-costoilforfuel,andusuallyhasalonglife.Railroadlocomotives,trailtrucks,buss,tractors,androadbuildingequipmentarepoweredbydieselengine.Shipsandelectricpowergeneratingstationsalsousedieselengine.Smallmodelsareusedtopowersomeautomobiles.Thedieselenginewasdevelopedin1897byRudolfDiesel.Thedieselenginediffersfromthegasolineengineintwomainways.Thedieselisacompression-ignitionengine,whereasthegasolineengineisaspark-ignitionengine.Inadieselengine,airiscompressedineachcylinder,causingitstemperaturestorise.Fuelistheninjectedintothecylinders.Theheatoftheaircausesthemixturetoigniteandtoexplode.Gasolineenginesuseelectricsparkstoignitethefuelandairmixtureinthecylinders.Dieselenginesuselowgradeoilsthatrequirelessrefiningthangasolineandarelessexpensive.Pressureofover10500KNpersquaremeter[1500lbspersquarein]isbuiltupinthecylinderofadieselenginebycompressionandthesubsequentexplosion,orcombustion.Thispressureforcesthepistondownwards,whichturnsthecrankshaft.Cylinderwallsandmostotherpartsofdieselenginesarethickerandstrongerthanthosepartsingasolineenginessotheycanstandtheextrastrainsandstresses.Therearetwomaintypesofdieselengines,thefour-strokeengineandthetwo-strokeengine.Inthefour-strokemodel,whichisthelargerandmorepowerfulofthetwo,eachmovesdown,up,down,anduptocompleteacycle.Thefirstdownstrokedrawsairintothecylinder.Theseconddownstrokeisthepowerstroke.Thesecondupstokeexhaustthegasesproducedbycombustion.Inatwo-strokedieselengine,theexhaustandintakeofairoccurthoughopeningsinthecylinderneartheendofthepowerstroke.Theoneupstokeisthecompressionstroke.Thedownstokeisthepowerstroke.Two-strokeengineshavetwiceasmanypowerstrokerecycleasfour-strokeengines.Two-strokeenginesareusedforapplicationsthatrequirehighpowerinasmallengine.……附录2砂型铸造砂型铸造生产的第一步是设计并制作一个合适的模型。铸造模型一般由硬木做成，考虑到在金属液凝固及随后的冷却过程中所产生的收缩，模型的尺寸必须大于最终铸件的尺寸。收缩的程度由铸造金属或合金种类的不同而不同。除一些形状极其简单的铸件外，几乎所有的铸件的模型都分成两部分或更多的部分，以便于造型。如果要生产一个空心铸件，那么在模型设计时应加上引伸头，这样在造型时便可留出安放砂芯用的位置，铸型中这些辅助用的空处被称作芯座。生产中、小型铸件的砂型是在砂箱中做出来的。为了能在造型后取出模型，砂型由两个或更多个部分组成。将下砂箱放在厚实的平板上，并将下半模型放在适当的位置上，在模型上撒上面纱，然后，往砂箱中填满型砂，并将型砂出社在模型周围。填满和出事可用手工进行，但是在大型铸造车间里，造型过程已自动化。砂箱由传送带输送，首先砂斗往砂箱中填沙，然后，砂箱机械锤下经过，以实现出砂。紧砂作业完成后，除去多余的型砂，使表面平整并与砂箱的周边平齐。此时可将下箱，翻转过来，将上箱准确地放在下箱上。将上半模型放在准确的位置上。用小暗崤将上、下两半模型对准定位。直浇口、浇道和胃口所用的模型也放置在合适的位置上。直浇口、浇道应被合理的布置使金属流进型腔时能均衡分布。冒口应设在型腔的最高处，以便使浇铸过程中气体能顺畅地从铸型中排出。冒口的尺寸应大到以使冒口部位的金属不致过快的凝固。冒口的一个重要功能是充当液体金属蓄池，对铸型内的凝固起补缩的作用。此时，往铸型内撒上薄薄的一层干燥的分型砂，用来防止在上箱造型时，上、下两砂型粘连在一起。向上箱内填入型砂，并像制作箱一样，将上箱内的型砂出造型。上箱紧砂后，小心地将两砂箱分开。此时，如有必要，可在铸型上扎通气孔增强铸型的透气性。扎好通气孔后，细心地将模型分别从上、下砂箱中取出并细心地切出一个或更多内浇口使浇道与主型腔接通。内浇口的开设应使液体金属流入型腔时产生的涡流最小。轻轻吹走散砂，如果使用型心的话，将型心安放好。将上箱放到下箱上面，重新装配好铸型以代用。液体金属径直浇口平稳地主入铸型中。当在冒口顶部看到的液体金属以及直浇口也注满十就停止浇铸。待注入砂型内的金属完全凝固后，将砂型敲碎取出铸件，此时铸件上仍连带着浇道和冒口，铸件表面还黏着砂列。切割下浇道和冒口并将他们重新投入熔化炉中。打碎并去除砂芯，用震动或干砂喷砂法清理表面粘砂。分型面处的翅片和毛边用砂轮清理掉，此时铸件已完成并可对其进行检验了。发动机发动机是一个使用燃料作为能源的工作装置。燃料中化学成分的能源变成了热能源。然后热能被用到使机器运动的金属部份。燃料有好多种类型。大部分发动机使用汽油、石油、煤油，煤,或焦炭。来自燃料燃烧的热能使气体膨胀。这种膨胀驱动活塞或者涡轮蜗杆。活塞或涡轮转轴。旋转轴驱动齿轮和其他齿轮。我们使用这些滚动轮和轴到驱动汽车，飞机,和其他的运输系统。我们能也使用他们在抽泵,演练,挖,和其他的类似的活动。早期的发动机利用燃烧煤或木材来对水加热。那蒸汽被用到了驱动蒸汽发动机。直到本世纪中期,大部分火车是用蒸汽来驱动的。在本世纪初,一些汽车都是通过蒸汽来驱动的。我们仍然使用蒸汽发动机,但是大部份都被效率更高的发动机所代替。今天我们已经使用功能更强的汽油和柴油发动机。蒸汽发动机是一个外部的燃烧发动机。这也就是说燃料是燃烧,或燃烧,外面产生能量的圆筒。自从1769年JamesWatt发明了蒸汽发动机，蒸汽发动机在18世纪对工业革命产生了深远的影响。直到20世纪中期，大部分火车都是靠蒸汽来提供能量直到世纪末，甚至一些汽车也是靠蒸汽来提供能量。现在，大部分蒸汽发动机的功能已经被以汽油和柴油为燃料的通用发动机所替代。不管怎么样，还有很多蒸汽发动机被使用在海上。蒸汽发动机同样也被用在电力方面。现今，这种蒸汽发动机被用在没有液压缸的情况下。它通常是一个蒸汽涡轮机。这种蒸汽涡轮机是由查尔斯教区牧师发明的。蒸汽涡轮机在高压下比活塞发动机能更好的控制蒸汽，并且，在长生同样能量的情况下蒸汽涡轮机比活塞发动机结构更简单。汽油发动机大部分汽车和小的车辆使用汽油做燃料。汽油发动机是一种内燃发动机。燃料是在发动机的内部燃烧室燃烧。燃烧室位于其中一个液压缸的端部。活塞在液压缸里面上下移动。他们是由燃料燃烧长生的热气来驱动。当燃料和空气混合以后燃烧的非常迅速继而发生膨胀。燃烧室和液压缸部分都像一个炸弹，膨胀就是由活塞头的不断来回运动。也是由活塞来获取尽可能大的驱动力。活塞在液压缸里的每次上下运动称为一个行程。大部分汽油发动机都是以四个行程为一个工作周期。这也就是说每一次膨胀时活塞上下运动两次。也就是四个移动或行程。这种运动周期性的一次次重复。在第一个向下行程时，活塞移动到液压缸最低的那部分。油滴与空气又在液压缸内部开始混合。这时活塞又开始运动。这就是第二个行程。也就是把油滴和空气的混合物挤压在一个狭小的空间里。有一点火花，混合物就会爆炸。活塞再次强力下降做第三次周期性运动。这就叫着能量冲程。在第四个冲程，活塞再次运动到顶端。这一次活塞在液压缸内推动燃烧的汽油。气体以燃料蒸汽的形式从发动机里排出。第一个使用四个冲压行程的发动机是在1876年发明的。它是由德国工程师AugustOtto发明的。他使用的是煤油而不是汽油。第一个燃烧汽油的发动机是由KarlBenz和GottliebDaimler发明的。这两个人由于骑车的发明而出名。活塞只是简单的上下移动是不能推动一辆汽车的。它的运动一定要转换成另外一种运动。为了达到这个目的，曲轴是必须用到的。每一个发动机的活塞都要链接到曲轴部分。每一次推动都会使轴旋转。旋转轴传动能量到汽车的传输系统。这些通常是通过调速轮实现的。传输系统通过齿轮箱把能量传到联轴器和旋转轴。旋转轴通过轮轴驱动车轮。为了保证汽车持续运动，还需要其他一些系统。燃料系统是必须的。燃料系统要以一定数量的向发动机液压缸提供汽油。同时还要把汽油和一定数量的空气混合，为了能更好的爆炸。一定要有一个点火系统。这个系统必须在正确的时间向那些混合物提供火花点燃它们。也必须有一个冷却系统,否则发动机会过热。润滑系统一定要保证所有运动部分的润滑油以保证机器顺利运转。太多摩擦因素造成金属过热以致使发动机过热损坏。发动机的组成他们被称为缸盖和缸体。该缸体是由固态金属制造的。该金属通常铸造的方缸体是液压缸。液压缸的内侧必须制造精密，且高度抛光。在液压缸里上下运动的活塞也必须制造精密。有弹性条状的金属围绕液压缸内侧以阻止气体泄漏。该条状金属称为活塞环。他们往往由铝合金制造以保证强度和透明度。发动机可能有任何数量的液压缸。他们可能被安装在同一条，或在对面位置。假如它们通常是安排为一个"V"字型.在许多活塞发动机的飞机上，液压缸都以圆周形式被安装在曲轴周围。液压缸的下层部分是所谓的曲轴箱。这里是放置曲轴的地方。曲轴通过连杆连接到每个活塞。曲轴是由单一制造的。曲轴硬度必须很强，并加工精确。它每分钟可以旋转多达6000次，它改变了上下运动。它是通过曲轴，其中一个活塞。该曲柄是位于箱体周围的不同位置。在能量周期内，每个活塞都会给驱动力到曲轴上。在其他三个行程中，曲轴推动活塞一次次的上下运动。沉重的飞动论安放在曲轴箱的底端。保证箱体在行程中平稳运动。中心主轴在其位置上支持曲轴箱。液压缸盖是和缸体底座链接在一起的。在内部是燃烧室。每个燃烧室液压缸内部活塞的空间。这就是混合燃料和空气发生爆炸的地方。火花塞放置在燃烧室的最高点。每个燃烧室都有一个双阀。有一个用来使燃料和空气的混合物进入燃烧室的进气阀。另外一个阀是一个插座或排气阀门。通过这个阀排出爆炸后的气体。阀门的打开和关闭是靠推杆或推棒。推杆的上下运动是靠曲轴来实现的。这种关联是通过一个叫凸轮轴来实现的。为了用水来对发动机进行冷却，在金属缸体和缸盖内部有其通道。石油通过其他通道。在缸体上部和下部是一个垫片。这是一个作为垫圈的薄金属板。当发动机部分链接在一起时候把它放进去。它通常是由铜制造的。燃料系统发动机的燃料系统提供汽油用来燃烧。汽油存放在一个大油箱里。一个大能量的汽车，油箱可以储存很多的燃料。油箱放置的离发动机很远，以减少火灾的风险。油路通过燃料线放置。泵可以通过发动机的凸轮轴来驱动。有时也有自己的电动马达。在汽油达到液压缸之前，它必须和空气混合。燃料管线导致了汽油和空气混合。在混合中汽油受压迫通过精细喷嘴，或者喷射器。喷出雾状小水滴。当小水滴与空气混合后就会蒸发。现在，混合物就准备点火。发动机的速度是由节流阀控制的。打开和关闭节流阀控制混合物离开混合区。从混合物通过燃烧室的进气阀。混合物是通过一个被称为进气道的管道。这一类的管道必须远离燃烧的排气阀门。这被成为排气管。它会导致空气在外面通过排气管。排气管是一种较好的一种消声器，或静音器，或减少噪音。在一些汽车中，燃料是靠不同的系统传递的。替代通过燃烧室的是燃料在进入进气阀之前要喷洒到空气蒸汽里。用标准度量的少量喷洒。这个系统成为燃料注射。点火系统在每个液压缸内的混合物都必须做成爆炸剂。火花一般用来做这些。活化塞里的火花必须在正确的时间来通过那些气体。每个汽车的液压缸必须正确点火。点火系统取决于非常准确的控制。如果火花提前或推迟了几分之一秒，发动机就不会正常启动。来自电火花的电力使汽车的蓄电池存储能量。蓄电池由一个发电机来控制，或者由发动机的发电部分。蓄电池提供的电力大概只有12伏。为了制造一个蓄电池，需要上千伏。通过变压器蓄电池可以提供高达30000伏的电压。变压器被成为点火线圈。点火线圈向配电器提供高压。这是一个用电脉冲分配电力的设备，或脉冲，以传送到火花塞。当一个电力脉冲以高压到达火花塞时，小气罐里便火花四溅。火花太热以至于使汽油和空气的混合物点燃并发生爆炸。冷却系统发动机燃烧汽油而长生的热量是非常大的。每个燃烧室里的温度可达到1000度以上[甚至1800度]。发动机必须不断降温。冷却系统供应冷却水的通道被称为塞槽。塞槽围绕着液压缸。当水通过塞槽时它们带走多余的热量。被带出去的热水在散热器里被冷却。散热器是一个和许多管子连在一起的系统，位于这些管子中间。来自汽车前端的冷空气进入这些管子之间。驱动发动机时，风扇加快了空气的流通。热水即在空气中失去其热量。冷却水这时再次进入发动机。有些汽车没有水冷却系统。它们利用空气来冷却。从发动机外部来的空气吹在缸体和缸盖上。发动机充满特殊的散热片，连接到外部的气流中.....