tpo1-33阅读原文翻译

DeerPopulationsofthePugetTwospeciesofdeerhavebeenprevalentinthePugetSoundareaofWashingtonStateinthePacificNorthwestoftheUnitedStates.Theblack-taileddeer,alowland,west-sidecousinofthemuledeerofeasternWashington,isnowthemostcommon.Theotherspecies,theColumbianwhite-taileddeer,inearliertimeswascommonintheopenprairiecountry;itisnowrestrictedtothelow,marshyislandsandfloodinsalongthelowerColumbiaRiver.Nearlyanykindofntoftheunderstorycanbepartofadeer'sdiet.Wheretheinhibitsthegrowthofgrassandothermeadownts,theblack-taileddeerbrowsesonhuckleberry,salal,dogwood,andalmostanyothershruborherb.Butthisisfair-weatherfeeding.Whatkeepstheblack-taileddeeraliveintheharsherseasonsofntdecayanddormancy?Onecompensationfornothibernatingisthebuilt-inurgetomigrate.Deermaymovefromhigh-elevationbrowseareasinsummerdowntothelowlandareasinlatefall.Evenwithsnowontheground,thehighbushyunderstoryisexposed;alsosnowandwindbringdownleafybranchesofcedar,hemlock,redalder,andotherarborealfodder.ThenumbersofdeerhavefluctuatedmarkedlysincetheentryofEuropeansintoPugetSoundcountry.Theearlyexplorersandsettlerstoldofabundantdeerintheearly1800sandyetalmostinthesamebreathbemoanedthelackofthissucculentgameanimal.FamousexplorersofthenorthAmericanfrontier,LewisandClarkarrivedatthemouthoftheColumbiaRiveronNovember14,1805,innearlystarvedcircumstances.TheyhadexperiencedgreatdifficultyfindinggamewestoftheRockiesandnotuntilthesecondofDecemberdidtheykilltheirfirstelk.Tokeep40peoplealivethatwinter,theyconsumedapproximay150elkand20deer.Andwhengamemovedoutofthelowlandsinearlyspring,theexpeditiondecidedtoreturneastratherthanfacepossiblestarvation.Lateronintheearlyyearsofthenineteenthcentury,whenFortVancouverbecametheheadquartersoftheHudson'sBay,deerpopulationstofluctuate.DavidDouglas,Scottishbotanicalexplorerofthe1830s,foundadisturbingchangeintheanimallifearoundthefortduringtheperiodbetweenhisfirstvisitin1825andhisfinalcontactwiththefortin1832.ArecentDouglasbiographerstates:"Thedeerwhichoncepicturesquelydottedthemeadowsaroundthefortweregone[in1832],huntedtoexterminationinordertoprotectthecrops."Reductioninnumbersofgameshouldhavebodedillfortheirsurvivalinlatertimes.Aworseningoftheplightofdeerwastobeexpectedassettlersencroachedontheland,logging,burning,andclearing,eventuallyrecingawildernesslandscapewithroads,cities,towns,andfactories.Nodoubtthenumbersofdeerdeclinedstillfurther.RecallthefateoftheColumbianwhite-taileddeer,nowinaprotectedstatus.Butfortheblack-taileddeer,humanpressurehashadjusttheoppositeeffect.WildlifezoologistHelmutBuechner(1953),inreviewingthenatureofbioticchangesinWashingtonthroughrecordedtime,saysthat"sincetheearly1940s,thestatehashadmoredeerthanatanyothertimeinitshistory,thewinterpopulationfluctuatingaroundapproximay320,000deer(muleandblack-taileddeer),whichwillyieldabout65,000ofeither andanyageannuallyforanindefiniteperiod."Thecausesofthispopulationreboundareconsequencesofotherhumanactions.First,themajorpredatorsofdeer—wolves,cougar,andlynx—havebeengreatlyreducedinnumbers.Second,conservationhasbeeninsuredbylimitingtimesforandtypesofhunting.Butthemostprofoundreasonfortherestorationofhighpopulationnumbershasbeenthefateofthe s.Greattractsoflowlandcountry edbylogging,fire,orbothhave eidealfeedinggroundsofdeer.Inadditiontofindinganincreaseofsuitablebrowse,likehuckleberryandvinemaple,ArthurEinarsen,longtimegamebiologistinthePacificNorthwest,foundqualityofbrowseintheopenareastobesubstantiallymorenutritive.Theproteincontentofshade-grownvegetation,forexample,wasmuchlowerthanthatforntsgrownin

普吉特海湾的鹿40人在冬天里存活，他探险家大卫·18251832年的最后接触之1832年曾经如画般分布在温哥华堡附近草地上的鹿群已经了，为了保护农作物猎杀致。鹿群数量的减少预示了它们今后生存的艰辛。鹿群的处境正在，它们能期40年代早期，拥有比以往任何历史时期都多的鹿群，鹿群冬季的数量在接近320000只鹿（杂交和黑尾鹿）左右波动，在此之后的每一年不同段的公鹿和母鹿数量分别会增加至65000只。CaveArtinTheearliestdiscoveredtracesofartarebeadsandcarvings,andthenpaintings,fromsitesdatingbacktotheUpperPaleolithicperiod.Wemightexpectthatearly effortswouldbecrude,butthecavepaintingsofSpainandsouthernFranceshowamarkeddegreeofskill.SodothenaturalisticpaintingsonslabsofstoneexcavatedinsouthernAfrica.Someofthoseslabsappeartohavebeenpaintedasmuchas28,000yearsago,whichsuggeststhatpaintinginAfricaisasoldaspaintinginEurope.Butpaintingmaybeevenolderthanthat.TheearlyAustraliansmayhavepaintedonthewallsofrocksheltersandclifffacesatleast30,000yearsago,andmaybeasmuchas60,000yearsago.TheresearchersPeterUckoandAndreeRosenfeldidentifiedthreeprincipallocationsofpaintingsinthecavesofwesternEurope:(1)inobviouslyinhabitedrocksheltersandcaveentrances;(2)ingalleriesimmediayofftheinhabitedareasofcaves;and(3)intheinnerreachesofcaves,whosedifficultyofaccesshasbeeninterpretedbysomeasasignthatmagical-religiousactivitieswereperformedthere.Thesubjectsofthepaintingsaremostlyanimals.Thepaintingsrestonbarewalls,withnobackdropsorenvironmentaltraps.Perhaps,likemanycontemporarypeoples,UpperPaleolithicmenandwomenbelievedthatthedrawingofahumanimagecouldcausedeathorinjury,andifthatwereindeedtheirbelief,itmightexinwhyhumanfiguresarerarelydepictedincaveart.Anotherexnationforthefocusonanimalsmightbethatthesepeoplesoughttoimprovetheirluckathunting.Thistheoryissuggestedbyevidenceofchipsinthepaintedfigures,perhapsmadebyspearsthrownatthedrawings.Butifimprovingtheirhuntingluckwasthechiefmotivationforthepaintings,itisdifficulttoexinwhyonlyafewshowsignsofhavingbeenspeared.Perhapsthepaintingswereinspiredbytheneedtoincreasethesupplyofanimals.CaveartseemstohavereachedapeaktowardtheendoftheUpperPaleolithicperiod,whentheherdsofgameweredecreasing.TheparticularsymbolicsignificanceofthecavepaintingsinsouthwesternFranceismoreexplicitlyrevealed,perhaps,bytheresultsofastudyconductedbyresearchersPatriciaRiceandAnnPaterson.Thedatatheypresentsuggestthattheanimalsportrayedinthecavepaintingsweremostlytheonesthatthepainterspreferredformeatandformaterialssuchashides.Forexample,wildcattle(bovines)andhorsesareportrayedmoreoftenthanwewouldexpectbychance,probablybecausetheywerelargerandheavier(meatier)thanotheranimalsintheenvironment.Inaddition,thepaintingsmostlyportrayanimalsthatthepaintersmayhavefearedthemostbecauseoftheirsize,speed,naturalweaponssuchastusksandhorns,andtheunpredictabilityoftheirbehavior.Thatis,mammoths,bovines,andhorsesareportrayedmoreoftenthandeerandreindeer.Thus,thepaintingsareconsistentwiththeideathattheartisrelatedtotheimportanceofhuntingintheeconomyofUpperPaleolithicpeople.Consistentwiththisidea,accordingtotheinvestigators,isthefactthattheartoftheculturalperiodthatfollowedtheUpperPaleolithicalsoseemstoreflecthowpeoplegottheirfood.Butinthatperiod,whengettingfoodnolongerdependedonhuntinglargegameanimals(becausetheywere ingextinct),theartceasedtofocusonportrayalsofanimals.UpperPaleolithicartwasnotconfinedtocavepaintings.Manyshaftsofspearsandsimilarobjectsweredecoratedwithfiguresofanimals.TheanthropologistAlexanderMarshackhasaninterestinginterpretationofsomeoftheengravingsmadeduringtheUpperPaleolithic.Hebelievesthatasfarbackas30,000B.C.,huntersmayhaveusedasystemofnotation,engravedonboneandstone,tomarkphasesoftheMoon.Ifthisistrue,itwouldmeanthatUpperPaleolithicpeoplewerecapableofcomplexthoughtandwereconsciouslyawareoftheirenvironment.Inadditiontootherartworks,figurinesrepresentingthehumanfemaleinexaggeratedformhavealsobeenfoundatUpperPaleolithicsites.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthesefigurineswereanidealtypeoranexpressionofadesireforfertility.

欧洲的岩洞艺研究人员彼特··（1）在明显有遮蔽可供人类居住的岩石和处，（2）在居住的一出门的走廊，（3）在所能及的最深处，有人认为之所以在最深处作画是因为当时的人们曾在这里进行神秘的。料的更为频繁，可能因为它们比其它动物更大更沉（肉。另外，画作中主了这些小雕塑是一种理想型，或者说表达了当时的人类期望多的愿望。Petroleum,consistingofcrudeoilandnaturalgas,seemstooriginatefromorganicmatterinmarinesediment.Microscopicorganismssettletotheseafloorandaccumulateinmarinemud.Theorganicmattermaypartially pose,usingupthedissolvedoxygeninthesediment.Assoonastheoxygenisgone,decaystopsandtheremainingorganicmatterisp.sedimentation—theprocessofdeposits’settlingontheseabottom—buriestheorganicmatterandsubjectsittohighertemperaturesandpressures,whichconverttheorganicmattertooilandgas.Asmuddysedimentsarepressedtogether,thegasandsmalldropletsofoilmaybesqueezedoutofthemudandmaymoveintosandylayersnearby.Overlongperiodsoftime(millionsofyears),accumulationsofgasandoilcancollectinthesandylayers.Bothoilandgasarelessdensethanwater,sotheygenerallytendtoriseupwardthroughwater-saturatedrockandsediment.Oilpoolsarevaluableundergroundaccumulationsofoil,andoilfieldsareregionsunderlainbyoneormoreoilpools.Whenanoilpoolorfieldhasbeendiscovered,wellsaredrilledintotheground.Permanenttowers,calledderricks,usedtobebuilttohandlethelongsectionsofdrillingpipe.Nowportabledrillingmachinesaresetupandarethendismantledandremoved.Whenthewellreachesapool,oilusuallyrisesupthewellbecauseofitsdensitydifferencewithwaterbeneathitorbecauseofthepressureofexpandinggastrappedaboveit.Althoughthisriseofoilisalmostalwayscarefullycontrolledtoday,spoutsofoil,orgushers,werecommoninthepast.Gaspressuregraduallydiesout,andoilispumpedfromthewell.Waterormaybepumpeddownadjacentwellstohelppushtheoilout.Atarefinery,thecrudeoilfromundergroundisseparatedintonaturalgas,gasoline,kerosene,andvariousoils.Petrochemicalssuchasdyes,fertilizer,andsticarealsomanufacturedfromthepetroleum.As esincreasinglydifficulttofind,thesearchforitisextendedmore-hostileenvironments.ThedevelopmentoftheoilfieldontheNorthSlopeofAlaskaandtheconstructionoftheAlaskapipelineareexamplesofthegreatexpenseanddifficultyinvolvedinnewoildiscoveries.Offshoredrillingtformsextendthesearchforoiltotheocean’scontinentalshelves—thosegentlyslosubmarineregionsattheedgesofthecontinents.Morethanone-quarteroftheworld’soilandalmostone-fifthoftheworld’snaturalgascomefromoffshore,eventhoughoffshoredrillingissixtoseventimesmoreexpensivethandrillingonland.AsignificantpartofthisoilandgascomesfromundertheNorthSeabetweenGreatBritainandOfcourse,thereisfarmoreoilundergroundthancanberecovered.Itmaybeinpooltoosmallortoofarfromapotentialmarkettojustifytheexpenseofdrilling.Someoilliesunderregionswheredrillingisforbidden,suchasnationalparksorotherpubliclands.Evengiventhebestextractiontechni