(完整word版)语言学第六章之后

Chapter6LanguageandCognitionl.

WhatisCognition？

a.Mentalprocesses,informationprocessingb.Mentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.

Theformalapproach: structuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,

andlexicalstructure.

Thepsychologicalapproach：Ianguagefromtheviewofgeneralsystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attention,andreasoning.

Theconceptualapproach howIanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.

Psycholinguistics

Thestudyoftherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticbehaviorandmentalactivity.

6.2.1Languageacquirement Holophrasticstage Two

wordstage Stageofthree-wordutterances Fluent

grammaticalconversationstage

Languagecomprehensior

Mentallexicon informationaboutthepropertiesofwords,retrievablewhenunderstanding

IanguageForexample,wemayusemorphologicalrulestodecomposeacomplexwordlikerewritablethefirstfewtimesweencounteritandafterseveralexposureswemaystoreandaccessitasaunitorword.ItmeansthatfrequencyofexposuredeterminesourabilitytorecallstoredinstancesConnectionism ：readersusethesamesystemoflinksbetweenspellingunitsandsoundun

itstogeneratethepronunciationsofwrittenwordsliketoveandtoaccessthepronunciationsoffamiliarwordslikestove,orwordsthatareexceptionstothesepatterns,likelove.

Similarityandfrequencyplayimportantrolesinprocessingandcomprehending

Ianguage,withthenovelitemsbeingprocessedbasedontheirsimilaritytotheknownonesWordrecognition :recognitionofspokenwordsandprintedones.

Cohorttheory:

Marslen-Wilson&Welsh(1978)

Thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Eg.Toaninstructionpickupthecandle”listenerssometimesglancesfirstatapictureofacandy.

Interactivemodel:

Higherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,-down”inftueneeonlowerlevels.Lexicalknowledgecanaffecttheperceptionofphonemes.eg.lncertaincases,listenersknowledgeofwordscanleadtotheinhibitionofcertainphonemes;inothercases,listenerscontinuetohearphonemesthathavebeenremovedfromthespeechsignalandreplacedbynoise.

RacemodeI

Pre-lexicalroute:computesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignal

Lexicalroute:thephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessedeg.listenersusephonotacticinformationsuchasthefactthatinitial/tl/isillegalinEnglishtohelpidentifyphonemesandwordboundaries.

FactorsinvoIvedinwordrecognition:?

Frequencyeffect:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageintheL.

Recencyeffects:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurreneeinthediscourseorcontext.

Cotext:Werecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.

Lexicalambiguity eg.Myfrienddrovemetothebank.

Comprehensionofsentenee

Serialmodels :thesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollows

constraintsofaIanguagegrammar.Describehowtheprocessorquicklyconstructsoneormorerepresentationsofasentencebasedonarestrictedrangeofinformationthatisguaranteedtoberelevanttoitsinterpretation,primarilygrammaticalinformation.

Parallelmodels: emphasizethatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofin

formation,includinggrammatical,lexical,andcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral. Describehowthe

processorusesallrelevantinformationtoquicklyevaluatethefullrangeofpossibleinterpretationsofasentence.

Structuralfactorsincomprehension Comprehensionofwritten

andspokenIanguagecanbedifficultbecauseitisnotalwayseasytoidentifytheconstituents(phrases)ofasentenceandthewaysinwhichtheyrelatetooneanother.Minimalattachment :the

structurallysimp-etructuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.Eg.Thesecondwifewillclaimtheinheritaneebelongstoher.

Gardenpathsentenee egThehorseracedpastthebarnfell.Fatpeopleeataccumulates.

Lexicalfactorsincomprehension

Thehumansentenceprocessorisprimarilyguidedbyinformationaboutspecificwordsthatisstoredinthelexicon.eg.Thesalesmanglaneedata/thecustomerwithsuspicion/rippedjeans.

Syntacticambiguity Differentpossiblewaysinwhichwordscanbefitintophrases.

Ambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.Eg.Johnpaintedthecarinthegarage.

Comprehensionoftext Resonancemodel: informationinIong-termmemoryis

automatically

activatedbythepreseneeofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.

Discourseinterpretation Schemataanddrawinginferences

Schemaapre-existingknowledgestructureinmemorytypicallyinvolvingthenormalexpectedpatternsofthings.eg.Thecustomerentersarestaurant,looksforatable,decideswheretosit,walkstothetable

.Languageproduction

Accesstowords 1.Conceptualization:whattoexpressWordselection:a

competitiveprocess2.selectawordthatcorrespondstothechosenconcept.3.:Morpho-phonologicalencoding:beginswiththeretrievalofallcompetitors.

Generationofsentence

Conceptualpreparation:decidingwhattosay-aglobalplanisneeded

Wordretrievalandapplicationofsyntacticknowledge

Processesofsentencegeneration

Functionalplanning:assigninggrammaticalfunctionsPositionalencoding:gettingintopositionsfor

eachunit

WrittenIanguageproduction:

similartothoseintheproductionofspokenIanguage.Amajordifferentisthat,onceasyntacticlexiconunitanditsmorphologicalrepresentationhavebeenaccessed,itistheorthographicratherthanthephonologicalformthatmustberetrievedandproduced.

6.3CognitiveLinguistics

Cognitionisthewaywethink.Cognitivelinguisticsisthescientificstudyofthe

relationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.

Construalandconstrualoperation

Construal:theabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationindifferentways

Attention/salience :theoperationsgroupedundersaliencehavetodowithourdirect

ionofattentiontowardssomethingthatissalienttous.eg.Wedrovealongtheroad.

Judgment/Comparison :theconstrualoperationsofithavetodowithjudgingsomething

bycomparingittosomethingelse.eg.Theresacat[figure]onthemat[ground]

.Perspective/situatedness :weviewasceneintermsofoursituatedness.It

dependsontwothings:1.Wherewearesituatedinrelationtothescenewereviewing.2.Howthesceneisarrangedinrelationtooursituatedness

Mybikeisinfrontofthecar.

Categorization

Theprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences.

Threelevels:basiclevelsuperordinatelevelsubordinatelevel.

ImageSchema Johnson,Mark.

Animage-schemaisaskeletalmentalrepresentationofarecurrentpatternofembodied(especiallyspatialorkinesthetic)experience.

Acenter-peripheryschema- Thestructureofanapple

Acontainmentschema humanbodiesascontainers

ACycleschema DaysWeeks

AForceschemaPhysical:Wind,Gravity

Alinkschema

Apart-wholeschema-

Apathschema

Ascaleschema

Averticalityschema

634MetaphorGeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson

Metaphorsareactuallycognitivetoolsthathelpusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheworldaroundus.Metaphorisaconceptualmapping,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother,notfromawordtoanother.

Targetdomain-whatisactuallybeingtalkedabout.

Sourcedomain-thedomainusedasabasisforunderstandingtarget

EgTimeismoney.Thetargetdomain,time,isconceptualizedintermsofthesourcedomainofmoney.

Ontologicalmetaphors meansthathumanexperienceswithphysicalobjectsprovidethe

basisforwaysofviewingevents,activities,emotions,ideas,etc.,asentitiesandsubstances.Eg.Inflationisloweringourstandardofliving

StructuralMetaphor Providesrichhighlystructured,clearlydelineatedsourcedomainto

structuretargetdomain.eg.Heattackedeveryweakpointinmyargument.

OrientationalMetaphor GivesaconceptaspatialorientationegMOREISUP

addingmoreofasubstanee,andperceivingthelevelofthesubstaneerise.

Metonymyisdefinedasacognitiveprocessinwhichthevehicleprovidesmentalaccesstothetargetwithinthesamedomain.idealizedcognitivemodels(ICMs)byLakoff

Onthebasisoftheontologicalrealms,wemaydistinguishthreecategories:

theworldofconcepttieworldoffornthworldofthingsandevents

WholeICManditspart(s)

Thing-and-PartICM eg.AmericaforUnitedStatesSca’Ie

ICM eg,Howoldareyou?for whatisyour(agje?bnstitutionICM.

eg.:woodforforest(日勺)EventICM. Eg.Billsmoked

marijuana.(v)Category-and-MemberICM. Eg.thepillfor

birthcontrolpill (vi)Cateeond-PropertyICM. Eg.blacksfor

blackpeople(vii)ReductionI eg.crudeforcrudeoil

(2)PartsofanICM (i)ActionICM. eg.oauthora

newbook(ii)PerceptionICM. eg.sightforthingseen(iii)CausationICM. eg.slow

roadforslowtrafficresultingfromthepoorstateoftheroad(iv)ProductionICM.eg.IvegotaFordforcar(v)ControlICM eg.TheMercedeshasarrived.(vi)PossessionICM

eg.Hemarriedmoneyforpersonwithmoney"(vii)containmentICM

(viii)LocationICMs (ix)SignandRefereneeICMs

BlendingTheory I.Cross-SpaceMapping 2.Generic

Space 3.Blend4.EmergentStructure

Chapter7Language,Culture,andSociety

Languageandculture

.1.1Howdoeslanguagerelatetoculture

In20thcentury,"culture"emergedasaconceptcentraltoanthropology(thestudyofhumanity),encompassingallhumanphenomenathatarenotpurelyresultsofhumangenetics

LondonSchool：

Malinowski :Themeaningofawordgreatlydependsuponitsoccurreneeinagivencon

text

Ethnographyofcommunication l.speechcommunity

. situation,eventandact

3.SPEAKING(situation,participants,ends,act,sequence,key,instrumentalities,norms,genres)Speechcommunity:agroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity,andsharethesameIanguageoraparticularvarietyofIanguage

Theoryofthecontextofsituation J.R.Firth(1890-1960):

Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants,persons,personalities.

Theverbalactionoftheparticipants2.Thenon-verbalactionoftheparticipants

Therelevantobjects.

Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.

whospeakswhattowhomandwhenandtowhatend

Halliday:StudyIanguagefromasocialsemioticorinteractionalperspectiveFunctionalinterpretationofgrammarasaresourceformeaningpotentialLinguisticmodelinthestudyofliterature

Sapir-WhorfHypothesis- :Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,

consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakersuniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.

Linguisticdeterminism( )Linguisticrelativity( )

Thestrongversion):Theweakversion( ):

.Casestudies

Kaplan(1966):Thestructuralorganizationofatexttendstobeculturallyspecific.Nida(1998):Wordsaresometimes idiomgovettyedandcultusaecific

TowhichextentDoweneedcultureinourlinguisticstudy

Astudyoflinguisticissuesinaculturalsettingcangreatlypromoteourunderstandingofmotivationanddirectionalityinlanguagechange.

CultureinLanguageTeachingClassroon

A.Togetthestudentsfamiliarwithculturaldifferenee.B.Tohelpthestudentstranscendtheirowncultureandseethingsasthemembersofthetargetculturewill.C.Toemphasizetheinseparabilityofunderstandinglanguageandunderstandingculturethroughvariousclassroompractices.

.LanguageandSociety

Howdoeslanguagerelatetosociety?LinguisticsasaMONISTICorAUTONOMOUSPURSUITofanindependentscienee

LinguisticsasaDUALISTICinquiry

Asituationallyandsociallyvariationistperspective

Amaximinsociolinguistics: Youarewhato )”(

WOMENREGISTER LINGUISTICSEXISM

Whatshouldweknowmoreaboutsociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics: aninterdisciplinarystudyofIanguageuse,attempts

toshowtherelationshipbetweenIanguageandsociety.

Whatimplicationscanwegetfromsociolinguistics?

sociolinguisticscontributions:1.IthascontributedJtgachangeofemphasisinthecontentofIanguageteaching.2.innovationsinmaterialsandactivitiesfortheclassroom.3.afreshlookatthenatureofIanguagedevelopmentanduse.4.amorefruitfulresearchinthisfield.

appliedsociolinguistics

InIanguageclassroomsInlawcourtsInclinicsettings

Cross-culturalCommunication

Whatshouldweknowallaboutcross-culturalcommunication?I.Trytolookatthingsfromotherpersonspointofview2.Trytosensetheirfeelingtoagivenissue

.Trytounderstandtheirwayofknowingtheworld

.3.2Casestudies

WheninRomedoastheRomansdoPutyourselfinothersshoesOneculturesmeatisanother

Honpotycandsincerityarekeypoints

culture

tomutualunderstanding.

LanguageinUse

Whatispragmatics?Whatsthediffereneebetweenpragmaticsandsemantics？

PragmaticsisthestudyoftheuseofIanguageincommunication,particularlytherelationshipsbetweensentencesandthecontextsandsituationsinwhichtheyareused.Pragmaticsincludesthestudyof(1)Howtheinterpretationanduseofutterancesdependsonknowledgeoftherealworld;(2)Howspeakersuseandunderstandspeechacts;(3)Howthestructureofsentencesisinflueneedbytherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer.

Pragmaticsissometimescontrastedwithsemantics,whichdealswithmeaningwithoutrefereneetotheusersandcommunicativefunctionsofsentences.

Speechacttheory

Performativesandconstatives

Performative:Inspeechacttheoryanutteraneewhichperformsanact,suchasWatchout(=awarning).

Constative:Anutteraneewhichassertssomethingthatiseithertrueorforce.E.g.ChicagoisintheUnitedStates.

Felicityeonditionsofperformatives :

Theremustbearelevanteonventionalprocedure,andtherelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.

Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.

Veryoften,therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.

Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact

Whatisaspeechac ？

Aspeechactisanutteraneeasafunctionalunitincommunication.Inspeechacttheory,utteranceshavetwokindsofmeaning.

Propositionalmeaning(locutionarymeaning)：Thisisthebasicliteralmeaningoftheutteraneewhichisconveyedbytheparticularwordsandstructureswhichtheutteraneecontains.

Illocutionarymeaning(illocutionaryforce) :Thisistheeffecttheutteraneeorwrittentexthason

thereaderorlistener.

Aspeechactwhichisperformedindirectlyissometimesknownasanindirectspeechact,suchasthespeechactoftherequestingabove.Indirectspeechactsareoftenfelttobemorepolitewaysofperformingcertainkindsofspeechact,suchasrequestsandrefusals.

Locutionaryact:AdistinctionismadebyAustininthetheoryofspeechactsbetweenthreedifferenttypesofactsinvoIvedinorcausedbytheutteraneeofasentence.Alocutionaryactisthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.

Illocutionaryact :Anillocutionaryactisusingasentencetoperformafunction.

Perlocutionaryact :Aperlocutionaryactistheresultsoreffectsthatareproducedby

meansofsayingsomething.

Thetheoryofeonversationalimplicature

Thecooperativeprinciple U

Cooperativeprinciplereferstothec-operationbetweenspeakersinusingthemaximsduringtheeonversation.Therearefoureonversationalmaxim U:

Themaximofquantity:

Makeyoureontributionasinformativeasrequired.

Don'tmakeyoureontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

Themaximofquality:Trytomakeyoureontributiononethatistrue.

Don'tsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.

Don'tsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidenee

Themaximofrelation :Saythingsthatarerelevant.

Themaximofmanner :Beperspicuous.

Avoidobscurityofexpression.

Avoidambiguity.

Bebrief.

Beorderly.

Conversationalimplicature :Theuseofeonversationalmaximstoimplymeaningduring

eonversationiscalledconversationalimplicature.

Violationofthemaxims

Conversationalimplicature

Inrealcommunication,theintentionofthespeakerisoftennottheliteral

meaningofwhatheorshesays.Therealintentionimpliedinthewordsiscalledconversational

implicature.rthespeakers

8.2.3

4.

8.3

8.3.1

CharacteristicsofimplicatureCancellability/defeasibilityNon-conventionality

Post-Griceandevelopments

Relevaneetheory

intentionthroughthewords.

Calculability

Non-detachability

Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevanee.

TheQ-andR-principlesQR

TheQ-principleisintendedtoinvokethefirstmaximofGriceQuantity,andtheR-principletherelationmaxim,butthenewprinciplesaremoreextensivethantheGriceanmaxims.

ThedefinitionoftheQ-principle(hearer-based )is:

Makeyourcontributionsufficient (cf.quantity);

⑵Sayasmuchasyoucan(givenRtR ).

ThedefinitionoftheR-principle(speaker-based)is:

Makeyourcontributionnecessary(cf.Relation,Quantity-2,Manner);

Saynomorethanyoumust(givenQ)

TheQ-,I-andM-principles

Q-principle:

SpeakermaximU:Donotprovideastatementthatisinformationallyweakerthanyourknowledgeoftheworldallows,uniessprovidingastrongerstatementwouldcontravenetheI-principle.

I-principle

Speakersmaxim:themaxirhrainimization U

Sayaslittleasnecessary,ducetheminimallinguisticinformationsufficienttoachieveyourcommunicationalends.

Recipientscorollary:theenrichmentrule

Amplifytheinformationalcontentofthespeakerutieranee,byfindingthemostspecificinterpretation,uptowhatyoujudgetobethespeaker-intendedpoint.smM-principle

Speakernsaxim:Donotuseaprolix ，obscure ormarkedexpressionwithout

reason.

Recipientscorollary:IfthespeakerusedaprolixnarkedexpressionM,hedidnotmeanthesameashewouldhave,hadheusedtheunmarkedexpressionUspecificallyhewastryingtoavoidthestereotypicalassociationsandI-implicaturesofU.

LanguageandLiterature

Theoreticalbackgroundi

Style:Stylereferstovariationinapersonspeechorwritingoraparticularpersonsuseofspeechorwritingatalltimesortoawayofspeakingorwritingataparticularperiodoftime.

Stylistics:AccordingtoH.G.Widdowson,stylisticsisthestudyofliterarydiscoursefromalinguisticorientation.Hetreatedliteratureasdiscourse,thusadoptingalinguisticapproach.Thisbringsliteratureandlinguisticscloser.

Somegeneralfeaturesoftheliterarylanguag 9.2.1Foregroundingand

grammaticalform

Foregrounding:Foregroundreferstothepartofascenenearesttotheviewer,orfigurativelythemostnoticeableposition.Foregroundingmeanstoputsomethingorsomeoneinthemostessentialpartofthedescriptionornarration,otherthaninabackgroundposition.

Inliterarytexts,thegrammaticalsystemoftheIanguageisoftenexploited,

experimentedwith,ormadeto deviatefromother,moreeveryday,formsofIanguage,

andasaresultcreatesinterestingnewpatternsinformandinmeaning.

LiterallanguageandfigurativeIanguage

Literallanguage:Thefirstmeaningforawordthatadictionarydefinitiongivesisusuallycalledliteralmeaning.

FigurativeIanguage:A.k.a.trope,whichreferstoIanguageusedinafigurativewayforarhetoricalpurpose.

Wecanusesomefiguresofspeechsuchassimile,metaphor,metonymy,synecdoche,etc.

Simileawayofcomparingonethingwithanother,ofexplainingwhatonethingislikebyshowinghowitissimilartoanotherthing,anditexplicitlysignalsitselfinatext,withthewordsasorlike.

Metaphorlikeasimile,alsomakesacomparisonbetweentwounlikeelements;butunlikeasimile,thiscomparisonisimpliedratherthanstated.

Metonymymeansachangeofname

Synecdocheisusuallyclassedasatypeofmetonymy.Itreferstousingthe

nameofpartofanobjecttotalkaboutthewholething,andviceversa.

TheanalysisofliteraryIanguage

9.3TheIanguageinpoetry

Soundpatterning

Differentformsofsoundpatterning

Rhyme(endrhyme):Thelastwordofalinehasthesamefinalsoundsasthelastwordofanotherline,sometimesimmediatelyaboveorbelow,sometimesoneormorelinesaway(cVC).

Assonance

Consonanceconsonance(cvC).

Reverserhyme

Alliteration:Theinitialconsonantsareidenticalinalliteration(Cvc).

:Assonancedescribessyllableswithacommonvowel(cVc).

:Syllablesendingwiththesameconsonantsaredescribedashaving

:Reverserhymedescribessyllablessharingthevowelandinitialconsonant(CVc).

Pararhyme :Wheretwosyllableshavethesameinitialandfinalconsonants,butdifferent

vowels,theypararhyme(CvC).

Repetition：Acompletematchofthesyllable(CVC).

Stressandmetricalpatterning

lamb:Aniambicfootcontainstwosyllables,anunstressedsyllablefollowedbyastressedone.

Trochee:Atrochaicfootcontainstwosyllablesaswell,butinthiscase,thestressedsyllablecomesfirst,followedbyanunstressedsyllable.

Anapest :Ananapesticfootconsistsofthreesyllables;twounstressedsyllablesare

followedbyastressedone.

Dactyl :Adactylicfootissimilartoanapest,exceptreversedastressedsyllableis

followedbytwounstressedones.

Spondee:Aspondaicfootconsistsoftwostressedsyllables;linesofpoetryrarelyconsistonlyofspondees.

Pyrrhic:Apyrrhicfootconsistsoftwounstressedsyllables.

Metricalpatterning

(2)Dimeter(3)Trimeter(4)Tetrameter(5)Pentameter(6)Hexameter(7)Heptameter(8)Octameter

Conventionalformsofmeterandsound

Couplets :Coupletsaretwolinesofverse,usuallyconnectedbyarhyme.

Quatrains:Stanzasoffourlines,knownasquatrains,areverycommoninEnglishpoetry.

Blankverse:Blankverseconsistsoflinesiniambicpentameterwhichdonotrhyme.

Thepoeticfunctionsofsoundandmete

1-Foraestheticpleasure

Toconformtoaconvention/style/form

Toexpressorinnovatewithaform

Todemonstratetechnicalskill,andforintellectualpleasure

Foremphasisorcontrast

Onomatopoeia

9.3.6Howtoanalyzepoetry?

Readapoemmorethanonce.

Keepadictionaryanduseit.Otherreferencebookswillalsobeinvaluable.AgoodbookonmythologyandaBible.

Readsoastohearthesoundsofthewordsinyourmind.Poetryiswrittentobeheard:itsmeaningsareconveyedthroughsoundaswellasthroughprint.Oneshouldreadapoemasslowlyashecan.Lipreadingisagoodhabit.

Alwayspaycarefulattentiontowhatthepoemissaying.Oneshouldmakeanefforttofollowthethoughtcontinuouslyandtograspthefullimplicationsandsuggestions.

Asaidstotheunderstandingofapoem,wemayasksomequestionsabout.

Whoisthespeakerandwhatkindofpersonishe?

Towhomishespeaking?Whatkindofpersonishe?

⑶Whatistheoccasion?

Whatisthesettingintime(timeofday,season,century)?

Whatisthesettinginplace(indoorsorout,cityorcountry,nation)?

Whatisthecentralpurposeofthepoem?

9.4Thelanguageinfiction

941Fictionalproseandpointofview

First-personnarrator(I-narrator：Thepersonwhotellsthestorymayalsobeacharacterinthefictionalworldofthestory,relatingthestoryaftertheevent.Inthiscase,thecriticscallthenarratorafirst-personnarratororanl-narratorbecausewhenthenarratorreferstohimselforherselfinthestorythefirstpersonpronounIiused.

Third-personnarrator :Ifthenarratorisnotacharacterinthefictionalworld,heorshe

isusuallycalledathird-personnarrator,becausereferencetoallthecharactersinthefictionalworldofthestorywillinvolvetheuseofthethird-personpronouns,he,she,itorthey.

schema-orientedIanguag

Deixis :Atermforawordorphrasewhichdirectlyrelatesanutteranceto

atime,place,oraperson.

942Speechandthoughtpresentatio

Speechpresentatior

Directspeech(DS)I:Akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthecharactersaidinitsfullestform.

Indirectspeech(IS)I:Akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthespeakerswordsarenotreportedastheywereactuallysaid.

Freeindirectspeech(FIS) :Afurthercategorywhichisanamalgamofdirectandin

directspeechfeatures.

Narrator'representationofspeechacts(NRSA) ：Aminimalistkindof

presentationinwhichapartofpassagecanbeseenasasummaryofaIongerpieceofdiscourse,andthereforeevenmoreback-groundedthanindirectrepresentationwouldbe.

Narratorsrepresentationofspe(NRS) ：Apossibilityof

speechpresentationwhichismoreminimalistthannarrator srepresentationofspeec

acts,namelyasentencewhichmerelytellsusthespeechoccurred,andwhichdoesnotevenspecifythespeechactsinvoIved.

Thoughtpresentation

Directthought(DT) :Directthoughttendstobeusedforpresenting

conscious,deliberativethought.E.g. Hewillbelate,shethought.

Indirectthought(IT) :Akindofcategoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsof

theircharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentindirectspeech.E.g.Shethoughtthathewouldbelate.

Freeindirectthought(FIT) ：Akindofmixtureofdirectand

indirectfeatures.E.g.Hewasboundtobelate!

Narratorrepresentationofthoughtacts(NRTA):Akindofcategoriesusedby

noveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersisexactlyasthatusedtopresentspeechacts.E.g.Sheconsideredhisunpunctuality.

Narratorrepresentationofspeech(NRS):Apossibilityofspeechpresentationwhichismoreminimalistthannarratorrepresentationofspeechacts,namelyasentencewhichmerelytellsusthespeechoccurred,andwhichdoesnotevenspecify

thespeechactsinvoIved.

Streamofconsciousnesswriting :Thetermstreamofconsciousnesswasoriginally

coinedbythephilosopherWilliamJamesinhisPrincipleofPsychology(1890)todescribethefreeassociationofideasandimpress