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C/C++ProgramminginterviewquestionsandanswersBySatishShetty,July14th,2004Whatisencapsulation??Containingandhidinginformationaboutanobject,suchasinternaldatastructuresandcode.Encapsulationisolates(使间隔)theinternalcomplexityofanobject'soperationfromtherestoftheapplication.Forexample,aclientcomponentaskingfornetrevenue(利润)fromabusinessobjectneednotknowthedata'sorigin.Whatisinheritance?Inheritanceallowsoneclasstoreusethestateandbehaviorofanotherclass.Thederivedclassinheritsthepropertiesandmethodimplementationsofthebaseclassandextendsitbyoverridingmethodsandaddingadditionalpropertiesandmethods.WhatisPolymorphism??Polymorphismallowsaclienttotreatdifferentobjectsinthesamewayeveniftheywerecreatedfromdifferentclassesandexhibit(显现)differentbehaviors.Youcanuseimplementation(实现)inheritancetoachievepolymorphisminlanguagessuchasC++andJava.Baseclassobject'spointercaninvoke(调用)methodsinderivedclassobjects.YoucanalsoachievepolymorphisminC++byfunctionoverloadingandoperatoroverloading.Whatisconstructororctor?Constructorcreatesanobjectandinitializesit.Italsocreatesvtable表?forvirtualfunctions.Itisdifferentfromothermethodsinaclass.

变量列Whatisdestructor?Destructorusuallydeletesanyextraresourcesallocatedbytheobject.Whatisdefaultconstructor?Constructorwithnoargumentsoralltheargumentshasdefaultvalues.Whatiscopyconstructor?Constructorwhichinitializestheit'swithanotherobjectofthesameclass.

objectmembervariables(byshallowcopying)Ifyoudon'timplementoneinyourclassthencompilerimplementsoneforyou.forexample:BooObj1(10);Membertomembercopy(shallowcopy)Whatareallthefunctions

theimplicitmemberfunctionswhichcompilerimplementsfor

oftheusif

class?wedon't

Orwhatarealldefineone.??defaultctorcopyctorassignmentoperatordefaultdestructoraddressoperatorWhatisconversionconstructor?constructorwithasingleargumentmakesthatconstructorasconversionctoranditcanbeusedfortypeconversion.forexample:classBoo{public:Boo(inti);};BooBooObject=10;forexample:classBoo{doublevalue;public:Boo(inti)operatordouble( ){returnvalue;}};BooBooObject;doublei=BooObject;nowconversionoperatorgetscalledtoassignthevalue.Whatisdiffbetweenmalloc( )/free( )andnew/delete?mallocallocatesmemoryforobjectinheapbutdoesn'tinvokeobject'sconstructortoinitiallizetheobject.newallocatesmemoryandalsoinvokesconstructortoinitializetheobject.malloc( )andfree( )donotsupportobjectsemanticsDoesnotconstructanddestructobjectsstring*ptr=(string*)(malloc(sizeof(string)))ArenotsafeDoesnotcalculatethesizeoftheobjectsthatitconstructReturnsapointertovoidint*p=(int*)(malloc(sizeof(int)));int*p=newint;Arenotextensiblenewanddeletecanbeoverloadedinaclass"delete"firstcallstheobject'sterminationroutine.itsdestructor)andthenreleasesthespacetheobjectoccupiedontheheapmemory.Ifanarrayofobjectswascreatedusingnew,thendeletemustbetoldthatitisdealingwithanarraybyprecedingthenamewithanempty[]:-Int_t*my_ints=newInt_t[10];...delete[]my_ints;whatisthediffbetween"new"and"operatornew"?"operatornew"workslikemalloc.Whatisdifferencebetweentemplateandmacro??Thereisnowayforthecompilertoverifythatthemacroparametersareofcompatibletypes.Themacroisexpandedwithoutanyspecialtypechecking.Ifmacroparameterhasapost-incrementedvariable(likec++),theincrementisperformedtwotimes.Becausemacrosareexpandedbythepreprocessor,compilererrormessageswillrefertotheexpandedmacro,ratherthanthemacrodefinitionitself.Also,themacrowillshowupinexpandedformduringdebugging.forexample:Macro:#definemin(i,j)(i<j?i:j)template:template<classT>Tmin(Ti,Tj){returni<j?i:j;}WhatareC++storageclasses?autoregisterstaticexternauto:thedefault.Variablesareautomaticallycreatedandinitializedwhentheyaredefinedandaredestroyedattheendoftheblockcontainingtheirdefinition.Theyarenotvisibleoutsidethatblockregister:atypeofautovariable.asuggestiontothecompilertouseaCPUregisterforperformancestatic:avariablethatisknownonlyinthefunctionthatcontainsitsdefinitionbutisneverdestroyedandretains=keepitsvaluebetweencallstothatfunction.Itexistsfromthetimetheprogrambeginsexecutionextern:astaticvariablewhosedefinitionandplacementisdeterminedwhenallobjectandlibrarymodulesarecombined(linked)toformtheexecutablecodefile.Itcanbevisibleoutsidethefilewhereitisdefined.WhatarestoragequalifiersinC++?Theyare..constvolatilemutableConstkeywordindicatesthatmemoryonceinitialized,shouldnotbealteredbyaprogram.volatilekeywordindicatesthatthevalueinthememorylocationcanbealteredeventhoughnothingintheprogramcodemodifiesthecontents.forexampleifyouhaveapointertohardwarelocationthatcontainsthetime,wherehardwarechangesthevalueofthispointervariableandnottheprogram.Theintentofthiskeywordtoimprovetheoptimizationabilityofthecompiler.mutablekeywordindicatesthatparticularmemberofastructureorclasscanbealteredevenifaparticularstructurevariable,class,orclassmemberfunctionisconstant.structdata{charname[80];mutabledoublesalary;}constdataMyStruct={"SatishShetty",1000};prependingvariablewith"&"symbolmakesitasreference.forexample:inta;int&b=a;&读ampWhatispassingbyreference?Methodofpassingargumentstoafunctionwhichtakesparameteroftypereference.forexample:voidswap(int&x,int&y){inttemp=x;x=y;y=temp;}inta=2,b=3;swap(a,b);Basically,insidethefunctioninsteadtheyrefertooriginalargumentsanditismoreefficient.

therewon'tbeanycopyofthearguments"x"and"y"variablesaandb.sonoextramemoryneededtopassWhendouse"const"referenceargumentsinfunction?a)Usingconstprotectsyouagainstprogrammingerrorsthatinadvertently不经意的alterdata.b)Usingconstallowsfunctiontoprocessbothconstandnon-constactualarguments,whileafunctionwithoutconstintheprototypecanonlyacceptnonconstantarguments.Usingaconstreferenceallowsthefunctiontogenerateanduseatemporaryvariableappropriately.WhenaretemporaryvariablescreatedbyC++compiler?Providedthatfunctionparameterisa"constreference",compilergeneratestemporaryvariableinfollowing2ways.Theactualargumentisthecorrecttype,butitisn'tLvaluedoubleCube(constdouble&num){num=num*num*num;returnnum;}doubletemp=;doublevalue=cube+temp);classparent{voidShow( ){cout<<"i'mparent"<<endl;}};classchild:publicparent{voidShow( ){cout<<"i'mchild"<<endl;}};parent*parent_object_ptr=newchild;parent_object_ptr->show( ).classparent{virtualvoidShow( ){cout<<"i'mparent"<<endl;}};classchild:publicparent{voidShow( ){cout<<"i'mchild"<<endl;}};parent*parent_object_ptr=newchild;parent_object_ptr->show( )Thisbaseclassiscalledabstractclassandclientwon'tabletoinstantiateanobjectusingthisbaseclass.Youcanmakeapurevirtualfunctionorabstractclassthisway..classBoo{voidfoo( )=0;}BooMyBoo;Soapointerwithtwobytealignmenthasazerointheleastsignificantbit.Andapointerwithfourbytealignmenthasazeroinboththetwoleastsignificantbits.Andsoon.Morealignmentmeansalongersequenceofzerobitsinthelowestbitsofapointer.Whatproblemdoesthenamespacefeaturesolve?Multipleprovidersoflibrariesmightusecommonglobalidentifierscausinganamecollisionwhenanapplicationtriestolinkwithtwoormoresuchlibraries.Thenamespacefeaturesurroundsalibrary'sexternaldeclarationswithauniquenamespacethateliminates除去space[identifier]{namespace-body}Anamespacedeclarationidentifiesandassignsanametoadeclarativeregion.Theidentifierinanamespacedeclarationmustbeuniqueinthedeclarativeregioninwhichitisused.Theidentifieristhenameofthenamespaceandisusedtoreferenceitsmembers.Whatistheuseof'using'declaration?Ausingdeclarationmakesitpossibletouseanamefromanamespacewithoutthescope范围operator.WhatisanIterator迭代器class?Aclassthatisusedtotraversethrough穿过theobjectsmaintainedbyacontainerclass.Therearefivecategoriesofiterators:inputiterators,outputiterators,forwarditerators,bidirectionaliterators,randomaccess.Aniteratorisanentitythatgivesaccesstothecontentsofacontainerobjectwithoutviolatingencapsulationconstraints.Accesstothecontentsisgrantedonaone-at-a-timebasisinorder.Theordercanbestorageorder(asinlistsandqueues)orsomearbitraryorder(asinarrayindices)oraccordingtosomeorderingrelation(asinanorderedbinarytree).Theiteratorisaconstruct,whichprovidesaninterfacethat,whencalled,yieldseitherthenextelementinthecontainer,orsomevaluedenotingthefactthattherearenomoreelementstoexamine.Iteratorshidethedetailsofaccesstoandupdateoftheelementsofacontainerclass.Somethinglikeapointer.Whatisadangling悬挂pointer?Adanglingpointerariseswhenyouusetheaddressofanobjectafteritslifetimeisover.Thismayoccurinsituationslikereturningaddressesoftheautomaticvariablesfromafunctionorusingtheaddressofthememoryblockafteritisfreed.WhatdoyoumeanbyStackunwinding?Itisaprocessduringexceptionhandlingwhenthedestructoriscalledforalllocalobjectsinthestackbetweentheplacewheretheexceptionwasthrownandwhereitiscaught.抛出异样与栈睁开(stackunwinding)抛出异样时,将暂停目前函数的履行,开始查找般配的catch子句。第一检查throw自己是否在try块内部,假如是,检查与该try有关的catch子句,看能否能够办理该异样。假如不可以办理,就退出目前函数,而且开释目前函数的内存并销毁局部对象,连续到上层的调用函数中查找,直到找到一个能够办理该异样的catch。这个过程称为栈睁开(stackunwinding)。当办理该异样的catch结束以后,紧接着该catch以后的点连续履行。1.为局部对象调用析构函数如上所述,在栈睁开的过程中,会开释局部对象所占用的内存并运转类种类局部对象的析构函数。但需要注意的是,假如一个块经过new动向分派内存,而且在开释该资源以前发生异样,该块因异样而退出,那么在栈睁开时期不会开释该资源,编译器不会删除该指针,这样就会造成内存泄漏。2.析构函数应当从不抛出异样在为某个异样进行栈睁开的时候,析构函数假如又抛出自己的未经办理的另一个异样,将会以致调用标准库terminate函数。平常terminate函数将调用abort函数,以致程序的非正常退出。所以析构函数应当从不抛出异样。3.异样与结构函数假如在结构函数对象时发生异样,此时该对象可能不过被部分结构,要保证能够合适的撤掉这些已结构的成员。4.未捕捉的异样将会停止程序不可以不办理异样。假如找不到般配的catch,程序就会调用库函数terminate。Nametheoperatorsthatcannotbeoverloaded??sizeof,.,.*,.->,::,?:Whatisacontainerclass?Whatarethetypesofcontainerclasses?Acontainerclassisaclassthatisusedtoholdobjectsinmemoryorexternalstorage.Acontainerclassactsasagenericholder.Acontainerclasshasapredefinedbehaviorandawell-knowninterface.Acontainerclassisasupportingclasswhosepurposeistohidethetopologyusedformaintainingthelistofobjectsinmemory.Whenacontainerclasscontainsagroupofmixedobjects,thecontaineriscalledaheterogeneous不平均的多样的container;whenthecontainerisholdingagroupofobjectsthatareallthesame,thecontaineriscalledahomogeneous单调的平均的container.Whatisinlinefunction??The__inlinekeywordtellsthecompilertosubstitute代替thecodewithinthefunctiondefinitionforeveryinstanceofafunctioncall.However,substitutionoccursonlyatthecompiler'sdiscretion灵巧性.Forexample,thecompilerdoesnotinlineafunctionifitsaddressistakenorifitistoolargetoinline.使用预办理器实现,没有了参数压栈,代码生成等一系列的操作,所以,效率很高,这是它在C中被使用的一个主要原由Whatisoverloading??WiththeC++language,youcanoverloadfunctionsandoperators.Overloadingisthepracticeofsupplyingmorethanonedefinitionforagivenfunctionnameinthesamescope.Anytwofunctionsinasetofoverloadedfunctionsmusthavedifferentargumentlists.-Overloadingfunctionswithargumentlistsofthesametypes,basedonreturntypealone,isanerror.WhatisOverriding?Tooverrideamethod,asubclassoftheclassthatoriginallydeclaredthemethodmustdeclareamethodwiththesamename,returntype(orasubclassofthatreturntype),andsameparameterlist.Thedefinitionofthemethodoverridingis:Musthavesamemethodname.Musthavesamedatatype.·Musthavesameargumentlist.Overridingamethodmeansthatreplacingamethodfunctionalityimplyoverridingfunctionalityweneedparentandchildclasses.youdefinethesamemethodsignatureasonedefinedintheparentclass.

inchildclass.ToInthechildclassWhatis"this"pointer?Thethispointerisapointeraccessibleonlywithinthememberfunctionsofaclass,struct,oruniontype.Itpointstotheobjectforwhichthememberfunctioniscalled.Staticmemberfunctionsdonothaveathispointer.Whenanon-staticmemberfunctioniscalledforanobject,theaddressoftheobjectispassedasahiddenargumenttothefunction.Forexample,thefollowingfunctioncall(3);canbeinterpreted解说thisway:setMonth(&myDate,3);Theobject'saddressisavailablefromwithinthememberfunctionasthethispointer.Itislegal,thoughunnecessary,tousethethispointerwhenreferringtomembersoftheclass.Whathappenswhenyoumakecall"deletethis;"??Thecodehastwobuilt-inpitfalls圈套/误区.First,ifitexecutesinamemberfunctionforanextern,static,orautomaticobject,theprogramwillprobablycrashassoonasthedeletestatementexecutes.Thereisnoportablewayforanobjecttotellthatitwasinstantiatedontheheap,sotheclasscannotassertthatitsobjectisproperlyinstantiated.Second,whenanobjectcommitssuicidethisway,theusingprogrammightnotknowaboutitsdemise死亡/转让.Asfarastheinstantiatingprogramisconcerned有关的,theobjectremainsinscopeandcontinuestoexisteventhoughtheobjectdiditselfin.Subsequent以后的dereferencing间接引用(dereferencingpointer重引用指针,dereferencingoperator取值运算符)ofthepointercanandusuallydoesleadtodisaster不幸.Youshouldneverdothis.Sincecompilerdoesnotknowwhethertheobjectwasallocatedonthestackorontheheap,"deletethis"couldcauseadisaster.Howvirtualfunctionsareimplemented履行C++?Virtualfunctionsareimplementedusingatableoffunctionpointers,calledthetableiscreatedbytheconstructoroftheclass.Whenaderivedclassisconstructed,itsbaseclassisconstructedfirstwhichcreatesthevtable.Ifthederivedclassoverridesanyofthebaseclassesvirtualfunctions,thoseentriesinthevtableareoverwrittenbythederivedclassconstructor.Thisiswhyyoushouldnevercallvirtualfunctionsfromaconstructor:becausethevtableentriesfortheobjectmaynothavebeensetupbythederivedclassconstructoryet,soyoumightendupcallingbaseclassimplementationsofthosevirtualfunctionsWhatisnamemanglinginC++??Theprocessofencodingtheparametertypeswiththefunction/methodnameintoauniquenameiscallednamemangling.Theinverseprocessiscalleddemangling.ForexampleFoo::bar(int,long)constismangledas`bar__C3Fooil'.Foraconstructor,themethodnameisleftout.ThatisFoo::Foo(int,long)constismangledas`__C3Fooil'.Whatisthedifferencebetweenapointerandareference?Areferencemustalwaysrefertosomeobjectand,therefore,mustalwaysbeinitialized;pointersdonothavesuchrestrictions.Apointercanbereassignedtopointtodifferentobjectswhileareferencealwaysreferstoanobjectwithwhichitwasinitialized.Howareprefixandpostfixversionsofoperator++( )differentiated?Thepostfixversionofoperator++( )hasadummyparameteroftypeint.Theprefixversiondoesnothavedummyparameter.Whatisthedifferencebetweenconstchar*myPointerandchar*constmyPointer?Constchar*myPointerisanonconstantpointertoconstantdata;whilechar*constmyPointerisaconstantpointertononconstantdata.HowcanIhandleaconstructorthatfails?throwanexception.Constructorsdon'thaveareturntype,soit'snotpossibletousereturncodes.Thebestwaytosignalconstructorfailureisthereforetothrowanexception.HowcanIhandleadestructorthatfails?Writeamessagetoalog-file.Butdonotthrowanexception.TheC++ruleisthatyoumustneverthrowanexceptionfromadestructorthatisbeingcalledduringthe"stackunwinding"processofanotherexception.Forexample,ifsomeonesaysthrowFoo( ),thestackwillbeunwoundsoallthestackframesbetweenthethrowFoo( )andthe}catch(Fooe){willgetpopped.Thisiscalledstackunwinding.Duringstackunwinding,allthelocalobjectsinallthosestackframesaredestructed.Ifoneofthosedestructorsthrowsanexception(sayitthrowsaBarobject),theC++runtimesystemisinano-winsituation:shoulditignoretheBarandendupinthe}catch(Fooe){whereitwasoriginallyheaded?ShoulditignoretheFooandlookfora}catch(Bare){handler?Thereisnogoodanswer--eitherchoicelosesinformation.SotheC++languageguaranteesthatitwillcallterminate( )atthispoint,andterminate( )killstheprocess.Bangyou'redead.WhatisVirtualDestructor?Usingvirtualdestructors,youcandestroyobjectswithoutknowingtheirtype-thecorrectdestructorfortheobjectisinvokedusingthevirtualfunctionmechanism.Notethatdestructorscanalsobedeclaredaspurevirtualfunctionsforabstractclasses.ifsomeonewillderivefromyourclass,andifsomeonewillsay"newDerived",where"Derived"isderivedfromyourclass,andifsomeonewillsaydeletep,wheretheactualobject'stypeis"Derived"butthepointerp'stypeisyourclass.Canyouthinkofasituationwhereyourprogramwouldcrashwithoutreachingthebreakpointwhichyousetatthebeginningofmain( )?C++allowsfordynamicinitializationofglobalvariablesbeforemain( )isinvoked.Itispossiblethatinitializationofglobalwillinvokesomefunction.Ifthisfunctioncrashesthecrashwilloccurbeforemain( )isentered.NametwocaseswhereyouMUSTuseinitializationlistasopposedtoassignmentinconstructors.Bothnon-staticconstdatamembersandreferencedatamemberscannotbeassignedvalues;instead,youshoulduseinitializationlisttoinitializethem.Canyouoverloadafunctionbasedonlyonwhetheraparameterisavalueorareference?No.Passingbyvalueandbyreferencelooksidenticaltothecaller.WhatarethedifferencesbetweenaC++structandC++class?Thedefaultmemberandbaseclassaccessspecifiers表记符aredifferent.TheC++structhasallthefeaturesoftheclass.Theonlydifferencesarethatastructdefaultstopublicmemberaccessandpublicbaseclassinheritance,andaclassdefaultstotheprivateaccessspecifierandprivatebaseclassinheritance.Whatdoesextern"C"intfunc(int*,Foo)accomplish实现/达到/达成?Itwillturnoff"namemangling"forfuncsothatonecanlinktocodecompiledbyaCcompiler.Howdoyouaccessthestaticmemberofaclass?<ClassName>::<StaticMemberName>Whatismultipleinheritance(virtualinheritance)?Whatareitsadvantagesanddisadvantages?MultipleInheritanceistheprocesswhereby经过achildcanbederivedfrommorethanoneparentclass.Theadvantageofmultipleinheritanceisthatitallowsaclasst

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