吕振华-第六章-篇章与语用-语篇连贯性

1、华北水利水电大学外国语学院吕振华汉英对比之 汉英语篇章与语用对比4复习前几章我们了解了汉英/英汉语在语音、词汇、语法（总体特征、句法结构）上的差异。接下来会从篇章和语用的角度对两种语言加以对比。篇章（Text）更强调文本，而语用(Pragmatics)更强调语境。衔接性和连贯性是篇章最重要的特征。复习 语篇粘连性对比所谓语篇的粘连性，就是指语篇组织手段、衔接手段。就是指怎么样把上下文、前后文 变为一个整体。这些组织手段（衔接手段）主要包括：指代、省略、重复、连词、标点、词义、语序、韵律。复习 练习 Why Historians DisagreeWhy Historians Disagree1

2、Most students are usually introduced to the study of history by way of a fat textbook and become quickly immersed in a vast sea of names, dates, events and statistics. The students skills are then tested by examinations that require them to show how much the data they remember: the more they remembe

3、r, the higher their grades. From this experience a number of conclusions seem obvious; the study of history is the study of “facts” about the past; the more facts you know, the better you are as a student of history. The professional historian is simply one who brings together a very large number of

4、 facts. Therefore students often become confused upon discovering that historians disagree sharply even when they are dealing with the same event.2 Their common sense reaction to this state of affairs is to conclude that one historian is right while the other is wrong. and presumably, historians are

5、 wrong, will have their “facts” wrong. This is seldom the case, however. historians usually argue reasonably and persuasively. Moreover, they often find that contending historians more or less agree on the facts; that is, they use the same data. They come to different conclusions because they view t

6、he past from a different perspective. History, which seemed a cutand-dried matter of memorizing facts now 3 This position is hardly satisfying. They cannot help but feel that two diametrically opposed points of view about an event cannot both be right; yet they lack the ability to decide between the

7、m.4 To understand why historians disagree, students must consider a problem they have more or less taken for granted. They must ask themselves what history really is.5 In its broad sense, history denotes the whole of the human past. More restricted is the notion that history is the recorded past, th

8、at is, that part of human life which has left some sort of record such as folktales, artifacts, or written documents. Finally, history may be defined as that which historians write about the past. Of course the three meanings are related. Historians must base on the remains of the past, left by peop

9、le. Obviously they cannot know everything for the same reason that not every event, every happening, was fully and completely recorded. Therefore the historians can only approximate history at best. No one can ever claim to have concluded the past.6 But this does not say enough. If historians cannot

10、 know everything because not every event, was recorded, neither do they use all the records that are available to them. Rather, they select only those records they deem most significantly. Cohesion devices in the text Why Historians DisagreeParagraphs Cohesion devices 1 2 grammatical Their reaction

11、to this state of affairs 2 3 grammatical This position is hardly satisfying3 4 logical/zero connector4 5 logical/grammatical/lexicalIn its broadest sense, history denotes5 6 logical/grammaticalBut this does not say enough.cohere, Lat. co- + haere (cling), to stick or held together, and to have inter

12、nal elements or parts logically connected so that aesthetic consistency results.Cohesion & Coherence NEW 语篇的连贯性对比Legett等（1991）提到英语常用8中组织方式取得段落的连贯。这8中方式是：时间（time）、空间（space）、从特殊到一般或者从一般到特殊（general to particular or particular to general）、层递（climax）、比较和对比（comparison and contrast）、分析与分类(analysis and clas

13、sification)、定义（defination）、因果（causes and effects）。这些方式使用恰当，与衔接手段配合，可以提高语篇的连贯性。语篇粘连性VS语篇连贯性语篇的粘连性（cohesion）通过各种衔接手段来实现，是显性的，有标记的，一眼都能看出来的。比如，指代、重复、连词、标点，连词等手段的使用。语篇粘连性VS语篇连贯性连贯性（coherence ），指语义上的前后一致性，是隐形的，是指一段话、一篇文章在意义上的一致和统一。换句话说就是：以什么为线索把段落里面的句子串联起来。语篇粘连性VS语篇连贯性语篇的粘连性（cohesion）通过各种衔接手段来实现，是显性的，有标记

14、的，一眼都能看出来的。比如，指代、重复、连词、标点，连词等手段的使用。连贯性（coherence ），指语义上的前后一致性，是隐形的，是指一段话、一篇文章在意义上的一致和统一。Cohesion VS Coherencecohesioncoherence1. Cohesion is a measurable linguistic phenomenon. 1. Coherence is more global and is not directly amenable to evaluation.2. Cohesion exists within a text and adds to the coh

15、erence of text. 2. Coherence is something the reader establishes or hopes to establish.3. Cohesion is a text-related phenomenon.3. Coherence is both a text and a reader related phenomenon.4. Cohesion uses cohesive ties which link words or phrases with other words or phrases in connected discourse.4.

16、 Coherence views discourse as a process. Texts are viewed as dynamic expressions of meaning jointly negotiated by particular speakers and hearers located in socio-cultural space and time. 5. Cohesion studies things such as the nature of cohesive elements whether semantic or syntactic, their directio

17、n, whether they point to what precedes or to what follows and the distance in terms of number of sentences intervening between the cohesive item and the element to which it reveres.5. Coherence in discourse involves far more than lexical and grammatical links between elements in the text. Coherence

18、involves both the intra and the extra-textual.请看例子：老王今年四十九岁。虽然岁月不饶人，可是他的新房子没有装空调。因为每个大学都有新房子，所以四十五岁都不能提拔了。及时有空调，放假的事情也必须经过领导批准。-这一段文字你读起来感觉怎么样？东拉西扯，杂乱无序！ CoherenceWhat is coherence? Coherence in linguistics is what makes a text semantically meaningful. It is especially dealt with in text linguistics

19、. A semantically coherent text must have texture. Texture distinguishes text and non-text. A: How old is your son? B: He is seven.A: How old is your son? B: She is playing in the garden.(2) is semantically incoherent, she has no referent.Legett等（1991）提到英语常用8中组织方式取得段落的连贯。这8中方式是：时间（time）、空间（space）、从特殊

20、到一般或者从一般到特殊（general to particular or particular to general）、层递（climax）、比较和对比（comparison and contrast）、分析与分类(analysis and classification)、定义（defination）、因果（causes and effects）。这些方式使用恰当，与衔接手段配合，可以提高语篇的连贯性。以下是常见的8种组织方式（一）时间看酒的制作，是很有趣的，先将高梁等原料粉碎，蒸熟拌上曲，压入一个个大瓮里，这瓮又要深埋入土中。这些原料及工艺看似很粗糙，甚至还有点不卫生之嫌。发酵之后，便放在一

21、个大甑中蒸，一会儿便蒸馏出一股清澈的细泉，流入筒中，淙淙有声，这便曰酒。酒泉接着汇入“酒海”。那是一个三层大厦的酒库，内放着13000多只半人高的大缸。酒在这里一直要静静地待上34年才能出厂，这叫“熟化”。这套工艺大约在酿酒之初，就如此。 （梁衡杏花村访酒）How to Make Pizza1.Preheat the oven to 400 Fahrenheit (204Celsius). 2.Prepare the crust. Remove the unbaked crust from the packaging. Place it on a round or rectangular ba

22、king sheet, depending on what you have on hand. Use a pastry brush to spread a thin coating of olive oil over the top of the crust. 3.Spread pizza sauce on the crust. How much pizza sauce you add is purely a matter of personal preference. 4.Add toppings. Layer your favorite toppings over the sauce.

23、Add as many or as few toppings as you want. 5.Add the cheese. Sprinkle mozzarella cheese over the toppings. 6.Bake the pizza. Place the pizza in the oven and have it bake for about 20 minutes, or until the crust is golden brown and the cheese is melted. 以时间为线索，也是以制作程序为线索。（二）空间喝过酒，我们被让到招待所里小憩。这招待所也别致

24、，是一所中国式的四合院，取名曰“醉仙店”。院心有古井，有假山。山下有水，有草。草地上有一条汉白玉的黄牛，牛背上牧童横笛，旁边的碑上题着杜牧那首“借问酒家何处有，牧童遥指杏花村”的名诗。环院，南北为客房，东侧为碑廊，记录着南北朝以来汾酒的历史。西侧为展览馆和历代酒器陈列馆，出出进进的游人无不感受到酒文化的博大精深，馆内也有许多关于汾酒的名人题赠。 （梁衡杏花村访酒）英文的例子从略。如果描写一个教堂，也很方便以空间为序。时空关系：可以说是一种最基本的逻辑关系,一切事物的发生都存在于特定的时间和空间里。英汉语的表示时空关系的连接词如下所示:英语:when, now, then, just then,

25、 at the same time, before, in the end, at once, soon, later, here, there, where ,after that ,finally etc.汉语:当时候,现在,而后,正在那时,与此同时,原先,最后,立刻,不久,后来,下一次,到那时为止,接下来,其次, 在这一点上,这儿,那儿,哪里,从那之后，最终等等。汉语中常用连动式来表示空间位置的改变,但英语中时常要用时间关系连接词。They two traveled through the woods to the other side of the village. Then cros

26、sing the stream, they reached a small garden which is filled with roses.他们俩穿过树林，到了村子的另一端。趟过小溪，又到了一个满是玫瑰的花园（三）从特殊到一般或者从一般到特殊（general to particular or particular to general）先看汉语的例子：轻松不一定就写得不好。写作，在更高的层面上，是一种智力的付出与较量。不光写作，科学，技术，文化，各个专业，各个方面，分称得上事业的，最终都是一种智慧的开拓和发现。其目的，就是要把人类这方面的智慧在往前推进一步。文学艺术，尤其是这样。而轻松，绝

27、对是智慧流淌的一种惯常状态。你见过一个整天愁眉苦脸的聪明人吗？ （韩石山在斯德哥尔摩西郊墓地的凭吊）Disaster is rarely as pervasive as it seems from recorded accounts.The fact of being on the record makes it appear continuous and ubiquitous whereas it is more likely to have been aporadic both in time and places. . After aborbing the news of today,o

28、ne expects to face a world of consisting entirely of strikes, crimes,power failures,broken water mains,stalled trains,school shutdowns,muggers,drug-sddicts,and rapist. .从特殊到一般（particular to general ） 由特殊到一般排列(specific-to-general arrangement)I dont understand why people confuse my Siamese cat, Prissy

29、, with the one I had several years ago, Henry. The two cats are only alike in breed. Prissy, aquiet, feminine feline, loves me dearly but not possessively. She likes to keep her distance from people, exert her independence and is never so rude as to beg, lick, or sniff unceremoniously. Her usual pos

30、ture is sitting upright, eyesclosed, perfectly still. Prissy is a very proper cat. Henry, on the other hand,loved me dearly but possessively. He was my shadow from morning till night. He expected me to constantly entertain him. Henry never cared who saw him do anything, whether it was decorous or no

31、t, and he usually offended my friends in some way. The cat made himself quite comfortable, on the top of the television,across strangers feet or laps, in beds, drawers, sacks, closets, or nooks. The difference between them is imperceptible(感觉不到的; 细微的) to strangers.本段的主题句是段首句，它仅提出一个问题：为什么两只猫会被搞混。然后对两

32、者进行比较，末句才下结论。(四)层递（climax）按重要性顺序排列(arrangement in-groups importance)If you work as a soda jerker(搬运工), you will, of course, not need much skill in expressing yourself to be effective. If you work on a machine, your ability to express yourself will be of little importance. But as soon as you move one

33、 step up from the bottom, your effectiveness depends on your ability to reach others through the spoken or the written words. And the further away your job is from manual work, the larger the organization of which you are an employee, the more important it will be that you know how to convey your th

34、oughts in writing or speaking. In the very large business organization, whether it is the government, the large corporation, or the Army, this ability to express oneself is perhaps the most important of all the skills a man can possess.这一段谈的是表达能力，它的重要性与职业，身份有关，从not need much skill或of little importan

35、ce到more important, 最后是most important。（五）比较和对比（comparison and contrast）这是语言篇章（段落）安排的一个方式。阅读的时候留意，写作的时候也是如此。A Contrast between Backpacking and Staying in a Hotel.A Contrast between Liberal Arts Students and Science Students.（Choose one and practice!）Writing is different from speaking mainly in structu

36、re and style. The purpose of all language is to communicate - that is, to move thoughts or information from one person to another person.There are always at least two people in any communication. To communicate, one person must put something out and another person must take something in. We call thi

37、s output and input./esl-articles/200108.htmI speak to you (OUTPUT: my thoughts go OUT of my head).You listen to me (INPUT: my thoughts go INto your head).You write to me (OUTPUT: your thoughts go OUT of your head).I read your words (INPUT: your thoughts go INto my head)./esl-articles/200108.htmA pos

38、soble topic sentence:Writing is different from speaking mainly in two ways-Structure and Style. .or:Writing is different from speaking mainly in structure and style. .We usually write with correct grammar and in a structured way. We organize what we write into sentences and paragraphs. We do not usu

39、ally use contractions in writing (though if we want to appear very friendly, then we do sometimes use contractions in writing because this is more like speaking.) We use more formal vocabulary in writing (for example, we might write the car exploded but say the car blew up) and we do not usually use

40、 slang. In writing, we must use punctuation marks like commas and question marks (as a symbolic way of representing things like pauses or tone of voice in speaking).We usually speak in a much less formal, less structured way. We do not always use full sentences and correct grammar. The vocabulary th

41、at we use is more familiar and may include slang. We usually speak in a spontaneous way, without preparation, so we have to make up what we say as we go. This means that we often repeat ourselves or go off the subject. However, when we speak, other aspects are present that are not present in writing

42、, such as facial expression or tone of voice. This means that we can communicate at several levels, not only with words./esl-articles/200108.htm（六）分析与分类(analysis and classification)After the first semester at a university, a student may notice that homework assignments can be categorized according t

43、o the various emotional states they produce.For axample, “The-Ill-Do-It-Later -Tonight” assignment is relatively easy assignment which takes no more than 5 or 10 minutes and causes the students little inconvenience or worry. Related to this type is “The -I -Thought-I-Could -Do-It-Later-Tonight” assi

44、gnment,which seems simple but is in reality much more than the students bargained for. . “The-Impossible-Dream”assignment,. . “The-I-Am-Going-To-Fail-This-Course” assignment,. （七）定义（defination）定义法就是通过给一个事物定义的方法将语段连在一起。先看汉语的例子：“黑客”一词来源于英文Hacker,原指那些非常聪明、富有独创意识的编程人员，或曰“超级网虫”。1998年日本出版的新黑客字典对黑客的定义是：“喜欢

45、探索软件程序奥妙、并从中增长其 个人才干的人。他们不像大多数电脑使用者，只会规规矩矩地了解别人指定了解的、范围狭小的知识。”黑客在网络时代如鱼得水、无孔不入，能轻松绕过一道道“警戒森严”的防火墙，闯入一个个壁垒森严的禁区，以证明自己的“高超技能”。最重要的是他们能够在你的系统中发现一些安全隐患和技术漏洞，. （洪志刚黑客：在刀锋上的行走）英文：A fair story,as distinct from a merry tale,or an animal story, is a serious tale with a human hero and a happy ending.The progr

46、ession of its hero is the reverse of the tragic heros:at the beginning he is either socially obscure or despised as being stupid or untalented,lacking in the heroic virtues,but at the end,he has surprised everyone by demonstrating his heroism and winning fame,riches and love.Though ultimatelely he s

47、ucceeds,he does not do so without a struggle in which his success is in doubt,for opposed to him are not only natural difficulties like glass mountains,or barriers of flame,but also hostile wicked powers, step mothers,jealous brothers,and witches. In many cases indeed, . .The tale ends with the esta

48、blishment of justice;not only are the good rewarded but also the evil are punished.（W.H.Auden, Introduction to Tales of Grimm and Andersen）（W.H.Auden,格林和安徒生的童话简介）（八）因果（causes and effects）将事物的原因和结果讲述出来，就是因果法。请看英文的例子：My father is a public high-school teacher.He and other teachers face a growing number

49、 of problems that seems to have no solutions.Having observe my fathers behavior for several years,I have concluded that high-school teachers are suffering from a disorder formerly associated with war veterans-shell shock.Besides teaching five or four hours a day,teachers are also expected to aponsor

50、 clubs,coach athletic teams, raise money,head committees,chaperone dances,arrange parades,light bonfires,publish newspapers,and sell pictures.He also searches drugs,putting out fires,and break up gang fights.Faced with these daily problems and demands,it is no wonder that teachers like my father are

51、 becoming less like educators and more like soldiers suffering from combat fatigue.天净沙 秋思马致远枯藤老树昏鸦，小桥流水人家，古道西风瘦马。夕阳西下，断肠人在天涯。天净沙秋思天净沙秋思 马致远划分节奏枯藤老树昏鸦，小桥流水人家，古道西风瘦马，夕阳西下，断肠人在天涯。天净沙 秋思 赏析整体把握诗意：枯藤缠绕着老树，树枝上栖息着黄昏时归巢的乌鸦，小桥下，流水潺潺，旁边有几户人家，在古老荒凉的道路上，秋风萧瑟，一匹疲惫的瘦马驮着我蹒跚前行。夕阳向西缓缓落下，悲伤断肠的人还漂泊在天涯。天净沙 秋思 赏析整首诗没有动词

52、。但感觉衔接得很好，很连贯。天净沙 秋思 赏析请试着翻译为英文 Practice ,please.翻译欣赏（巩固练习）请先自己翻译 天净沙秋思，在对照名家（比如，许渊冲得译本）的翻译，并说 说自己翻译是时的体验、名家翻译的优势与长处在那里。（6分钟排除生词，6分钟指成句，6分钟欣赏名家的翻译。）许渊冲译：天净沙秋思 马致远（元）Tune: Sunny Sand Autumn Thoughts许渊冲（译）枯藤老树昏鸦Over old trees wreathed with rotten vines fly evening crows;小桥流水人家Under a small bridge near

53、 a cottage a stream flows;古道西风瘦马On ancient road in the west wind a lean horse goes.夕阳西下Westward declines the sun;断肠人在天涯Far, far from home is the heartbroken one.本课程考核 一.参考选题:1.（例如，莫言作品，刘震云，方方，池莉，毕淑敏，.）某个作家的某部作品： 英译本对比研究2.汉语英常见颜色词文化寓意对比研究3.汉英语常见动物词文化寓意对比研究4.汉英语常见植物词文化寓意对比研究本课程考核 一.参考选题:5.中西儿童课外特长班模式内容价值取向对比研究6.中西饮食文化对比研究-以为例7.其他：自拟。但是要与汉英翻译、对外汉语教学密切关的选题。（xpx）本课程考核 重点是第一个选题。汉语原著，英译本一，英译本二；可以从翻译美学、翻译技巧、具体语句的不同处理、不同译文的得失、意识形态的处理（如果有）、民俗的翻译、笑话与幽默的翻译等进行切入。还可以从传播学的视角、语用学的视角本课程考核 二.格式要求1、课程论文要有题目、姓名、摘要、关键词、正文及参考文献。摘要500字以下；关键词35个；参考文献不少于1