Book10_U3_语法

1、篇章结构段落是文章的根本单位。一篇文章可以是一段，也可以写成假设干个段落。段落写作的好坏会直接影响文章意义的表达和思想的交流。一、 段落写作的3+3原那么1.构成段落的三个局部：主题句、扩展句、结论句主题句概括段落的中心思想，是段落开展的依据。扩展句支持主题句，通过给出一些例子、原因、事实、统计数字或引文等，对主题句进行解析说明，这是段落的主体局部。结论 句也叫总结句，通常是段落的最后一句，与主题句相照应。2.衡量段落的三个标准：完整性、统一性、连贯性完整性要求运用具体的事实细节深入说明主题，使段落内容完整充实。统一性要求段落中所有的论证细节都集中表达一个中心思想。连续性指段落中的每个句子在逻

2、辑上和结构上相连贯，使整个段落到达符合逻辑的平衡开展。二、 写好主题句主题句反映段落的中心思想，它常常位于段首或段末，有时也可置于段中。三、 段落的连贯段落的连续性要求文章段落中各句要前后衔接，条理清楚，使读者易于理解。获得段落连续性的方法有两种：按逻辑顺序组织内容和使用连接手段。1.逻辑顺序的连贯：英语的段落甚至整篇文章的内容按六种逻辑顺序排列，分别为时 间、空间、递升、递降、演绎和归纳。如：Every morning my nephew and I took a walk in the neighboring hills where we could enjoy the fresh air

3、 and sweet songs ofthe birds. In the afternoon, I mostly spent my time reading or writing, for I was shut in the house by the terrible heat. The eveningwas the only time we could go to swim together. I improved swimming during those two weeks and through physical exercise I becamestronger.按时间顺序Give

4、students a chance to grow. Let them seek knowledge, but do not find it for them. Let them learn patience; do not forceit on them. Let them take their own time to grow; do not set rigid schedules. Experience cannot be taught; it must come slowlythrough person search.按归幺内法次 序2.常见的几种连接手段：1利用代词指代前面的名词，起

5、到承上启下的作用；2利用关键词或短语的重复以到达衔接；3利用过渡连接词来显现文章内容组织的逻辑性。As a human being, one can hardly do without a friend. We need friends to share our joy and sorrow; we consult with friendsif there are problems we cannot handle alone; we go to friends for help when we are in trouble; and we sometimes confide in ourfr

6、iends what secret we are reluctant to reveal to our family. In a sense, friends are often more important to us than relatives.上面段落使用了上述三种连接手段：1使用代词one; 2重复关键词语friends , we; 3使用过渡连接词in a sense和and;几个句子通过分号连接，流畅自然地支持了我们不能没有朋友这一主题。四、 段落的开展在主题句确定了以后，下一步就是运用扩展句展开主题。常用的段落开展方法有：列举法、举例法、因果法、比拟对照法、分类法、综合法等。1

7、.列举法：是指先提出论点，然后列举出一系列论据进行陈述或解析的方法。列举法 常用的过渡连接词语有:first, second, also, finally, one, another, still another, for one thing - for another, to beginwith, on one hand - on the other hand等。Music comes in many forms: most countries have a style of their own. Poland has its Polkas. Hungary has its czardas.

8、 Brailis famous for the boss nova. The U.S. is known for jazz, a completely original type of music that has gained world-wide popularity.2.举例法：通过具体的事例扩展段落，阐述主题句中的主导思想。常用的过渡连接词有:to illustrate, for example/instance, in particular, such as, like, furthermore, also, besides, in addition to等。Americans va

9、lue manual labor. They have great respect for craftsmanship. Many Americans prefer craft hobbies. For example,some build small boats in their leisure time. Others make new furniture or refinish antique furniture. Still others enjoy gardeningor painting. They make these things and they are proud of t

10、heir manual skill. In fact some people are really very handy.3.因果法：因果法根据事物发生的原因推理其结果，或根据结果分析原因。表示结果的常用过渡词有:therefore, as a result, accordingly, consequently, for this reason, lead to等； 表示 原因的过渡词有:dueto, because of, owing to, since, as, result from, on account of等。如:It is difficult for workers to fin

11、d employment this year. One reason is that industries are reducing their current stafflevels because of a decline in national economic condition. Another reason is that workers who once might have considered earlyretirement are not staying at their jobs. Finally, other workers who used to view their

12、 jobs as optional now must keep their positionsin order to meet their minimum financial responsibilities.4.比拟对照法：通过比拟两个或一个事物的两个方面的相似点或不同点来支持主题句。常用 的过渡词中上匕较木目同点 的有：like, same, in the same way, similar to, similarly, both - and,in common等； 对照不同点的有:however, although, but unlike, differ from, be differe

13、nt from,on the other hand, in contrast, whereas等。如：People, when you first meet them, dont look particularly amazing and you really have no desire to spend a long time chattingwith them. However, as time passes and you have had a lot of contact with him you can see him as more and more lively, a good

14、,kind-hearted person. So your first impressions are often not reliable. This proves exactly the phrase: Never judge a book byits. 刀cover.5.分类法：通过对所表达的事物进行分门别类来展开段落。常用的词语有：to divide into, to classify - into, according to, in terms of, on the basis of, kinds, types, sorts, groups, categories等。A group

15、of people with the same color of skin, shape of head and type of hair is called a race. Scientists divided the peopleof the world into five different races. Most people belong to the three main ones, which are the white skinned, the black skinnedand the yellow skinned races. The two smaller ones are

16、 the Australian Aborigines and the Bushmen of Southern Africa.6.定义法：通过说明事物的性质和特征来开展段落，常用于说明文、描写文和议论文。常用的词语有:to be defined as, to refer to, the definition of, the term, to mean, to be等。如：Ambition means the goal in our life. To have ones ambition does not necessarily mean to become one of the chief st

17、ate leaders.This is not the real sense of the word. True ambition encourages us always to look forward and not to lose hope in face of failure.Ambition differs from person to person and everyone has his own ambition. Yet not every one of us can succeed in what we desire.7.综合法：以上六种段落开展的方法经常综合使用。在段落中同

18、时交叉使用两种或以上的方法，使段落表达得更加完整有力。成篇一篇文章，不管有多少段，其结构不外乎由引言(introduction)、正文(body)和结尾(conclusion)三大局部组成。一、 引言的写法1.主题句法：开门见山，直接点出主题或亮出作者对问题的看法。As the pace of life continues to increase, we are fast losing the art of relaxation. Once you are in the habit of rushingthrough life, being on the go from morning til

19、l night, it is hard to slow down. But relaxation is essential for a healthy mindand body.2.问题法：用问题来引出文章内容Is there a succespersonality -some successful combination of traits that leads almost certainly to achievement? If so,exactly what is that secret success formula, and can anyone cultivate it?3.数据

20、法：引用已经证实的数据来提出问题The fact that less than 5 percent of the British population graduate from university may seem surprising, especially whenviewed beside the American percentage of over 30 percent. To understand this contract, one needs to consider social differencesbetween the two countries, as well a

21、s differences in their theories of education.4.引语法：引用名言或常用的习语、谚语等作为文章的开头。The proper study of mankind is man. said Alexander Pope. Most psychologists have carried this idea further than Popewould have imaged.5.对立法：先引出人们对某一问题的不同看法，然后提出作者自己的看法。When asked about what kind of career they will pursue after

22、 graduation, most of the college students say that they wouldchoose a job which will bring them a lot of money and a comfortable life. But as for me, I prefer a career which will help realizemy potential.二、 正文的写法正文通常由一段或几段组成，从不同侧面对文章的主题展开讨论，各段阐述的主题必须与文章的主题一致。三、 结尾的写法结尾段用于概括全文的内容。常用结尾段的写法有：1.结论性结尾：照应

23、引言段，进一步肯定文章的中心思想或作者的观点。2.建议性结尾：就文章讨论的问题提出解决问题的方法或建议，指明努力的方向。3.引语性结尾：引用名人名言、谚语来总结全文。4.反问式结尾：以问句的形式说明肯定的意义，具有明显的强调作用，以引起读者思 考。5.转折性结尾：指出所讨论问题的消极一面或有可能产生的不良后果。四、 列提纲提纲是文章写作的方案，也是一篇文章的根本框架。列提纲有以下好处：有助于理清和 扩大思路；可以按次序排好素材；将文章分段；明确写作的中心，不至于走题。高考时间有 限，学生更应注意列提纲理清思路，保证文章的条理性。如：Thesis: New Tuition Fee Policy弓

24、I言：New tuition fee policy all pay for tuition正文:Some poor students facing difficultiesa. pay for tuition, books, accommodation and other necessities of lifeb. try their best but cannot bear the expenses, some get into debt, some on the edge of discontinuing schooling结尾：the measures to lighten their

25、family burdena. set up scholarshipb. establish low-interest loansc. provide more part-time jobs在此根底上，将上述提纲中的各点写成句子并加上必要的过渡词连贯成文，便可写成一篇短文。当然，提纲并非是固定不变的。在写作过程中，还会出现新的灵感，可以根据文章内容和结构的需要进行适当的修改。但文章的形式和主要内容根本上都是写作前决定的，因而写作前的酝酿和方案是最为关键的阶段。练习1.认真阅读以下短文，并选出最适合本文的标题。Former American President Bill Clinton once

26、 travelled to South Korea to visit President Kim Young Sam. He repeatedly referredto the Korean presidents wife as Mrs. Kim. By mistake, President Clintons advisers thought that Koreans have the same namingcustoms as the Japanese. Clinton had not been told that, in Korea, wives keep their family nam

27、es. President Kim Young Sams wifewas named Sohn Myong Suk. Therefore, she should be addressed as Mrs. Sohn.In addition to Koreans, some Asian husbands and wives do not share the same family names; this practice often puzzlesEnglish-speaking teachers when talking with a pupils parents. They become pu

28、zzled about the student s correct last name. Placingthe family name first is common among a number of Asian cultures.Mexican naming customs are different as well. When a woman marries, she keeps her family name and adds her husbands nameafter the word do (of). This affects how they fill in forms in

29、the United States. When requested to fill in a middle name, theygenerally write the father s family name, but Mexicans are addressed by the family name of the mother. This often causes puzzlement.Here are a few ways to deal with such difficult situations: don t always thing that a married woman uses

30、 her husbands lastname. Remember that in many Asian cultures, the order of first and last names is reversed. Ask which name a person would preferto use. If the name is difficult to pronounce, admit it, and ask the person to help you say it correctly.A.How to Remember a Name WellB.Name CustomsC.How t

31、o Call a Wife in Asia2.认真阅读以下短文，依据A D四个选项，为2-5段每一节段落找出最贴切的标题；同 时为全文拟一个适宜的标题。A.tears attract help from others and enable us to understand our emotions better.B.crying also has many health advantages.C.not crying can be bad for physical healthD.crying seems important to our emotional health.When I was

32、 small and my grandmother died, I couldn t understand why I had no tears. Butthat night when my dad tried to cheer me up, my laugh turned into crying.So it came as no surprise to learn that researchers believe crying and laughing come from the same part of the brain. Justas laughing has many health

33、advantages, scientists are discovering that so, too, does crying.Whatever it takes for us to reduce pressure is important to our emotional health, and crying seems to work well. One studyfound that 85 percent of women and 73 percent of men report feeling better after crying.Besides, tears attract he

34、lp from other people. Researchers agree that when we cry, people around us become kinder and friendlyand they are more ready to provide support and comfort. Tears also enable us to understand our emotions better; sometimes we don t evenr出vew wesad until we cry. We learn about our emotions through Cr

35、ying, and then we can deal with them.Just as crying can be healthy, not crying holding back tears of anger, pain or suffering can be bad for physical health,Studies have shown that too much control of emotions can lead to high blood pressure, heart problems and some other illnesses.If you have a hea

36、lth problem, doctors will certainly not ask you to cry. But when you feel like crying, dont fight it. Its anatural and healthy emotional response. The main idea of each paragraph:Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph 4 Paragraph 5D The best tile for the passage:_3.为以下每一段找到适宜的标题，并且将段落重新排序。A.poverty is on

37、e of the main reasonsB.no one would like to be homelessC.many reasons for homelessnessD.many people are homeless.E.many homeless people are treated unfairly1. Some homeless people are mentally ill and have no one to look after them. Some are young people who, for one reason oranother, have left home

38、 and have nowhere to live. Many of them have had a serious disagreement with their parents and have lefthome, choosing to go to a city and live on the streets. Sometimes they have taken such action because they have been unable toget on with a step-parent.2. In many countries the standard of living

39、enjoyed by their people has increased rapidly in recent years. Sadly, not everyonein these countries is so fortunate and many people in rich countries are homeless.3. Some cynics 愤世嫉俗的人declare that homeless people choose to live the life which they lead. But who would willinglychoose to live in a sh

40、op doorway, under a bridge or in a cardboard box?4. The reasons for homelessness are various, but poverty贫穷is undoubtedly one of themain causes. The homeless people may have become jobless and then been unable to pay their rent and so no longer have a roof overtheir heads. Often, the fact that unemp

41、loyed people get help from the government prevents this from happening, but not always.1The main idea of each paragraph:Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph 42The correct order:_4.根据文章内容理清文章的结构。Are There Extra-Terrestrials?(1) Many scientists today believe that life exists elsewhere in the

42、universe life probably much like that on our own planet.They reason in the following way.(2) As far as astronomers can determine, the entire universe is built of the same matter. They have no reason to doubt thatmatter obeys the same laws in every part of the universe. Therefore, it is reasonable to

43、 guess that other stars, with their ownplanets, were born in the same way as our own solar system. What we know of life on earth suggests that life will arise whereverthe proper conditions exist.(3) Life requires the right amount and kind of atmosphere. This eliminates all those planets in the unive

44、rse that are notabout the same size and weight as the earth. A smaller planet would lose its atmosphere; a larger one would hold too much of it.(4) Life also requires a steady supply of heat and light. This eliminates double stars, or stars that burn up suddenly.Only single stars that are steady sou

45、rces of heat and light like our sun would qualify. Finally, life could develop only if theplanet is just the right distance from its sun.With a weaker sun than our own, the planet would have to be closer to it. With a stronger sun, it would have to be farther away.(5) If we suppose that every star i

46、n the universe has a family of planets, then how many planets might support life? First,eliminate those stars that are not like our sun. Next, eliminate most of their planets; they are either too far from or too closeto their suns. Then eliminate all those planets which are not the same size and wei

47、ght as the earth. Finally, remember that theproper conditions do not necessarily mean that life actually does exist on a planet. It may not have begun yet, or it may havealready died out.(6) This process of eliminate seems to leave very few planets on which earthlike life might be found. However, ev

48、en if lifecould exist on only one planet in a million, there are so many billions of planets that this would still leave a vast number onwhich life could exist.The title_The beginning paragraph_Topic sentence_Body paragraph 1_Topic sentence_Body paragraph 2_Topic sentence_Body paragraph 3_Topic sent

49、ence_Body paragraph 4_Topic sentence_The concluding paragraph_Topic sentence_1.B2. BDAC The functions of tears3. CDBA DBCA4.The title:Are There Extra-Terrestrials?The beginning paragraph: Paragraph (1)Many scientists today believe that life exists elsewhere in the universe life probably much like th

50、at on our ownplanet. They reason in the following way.Topic sentence:They reason in the following way.Body paragraph 1: Paragraph (2)As far as astronomers can determine, the entire universe is built of the same matter.They have no reason to doubt that matter obeys the same laws in every part of the

51、universe. Therefore, it is reasonableto guess that other stars, with their own planets, were born in the same way as our own solar system. What we knowof life on earth suggests that life will arise wherever the proper conditions exist.Topic sentence:What we know of life on earth suggests that life will arise wherever the proper conditions exist.Body paragraph 2: Paragraph (3)Life requires the right amount and kind of atmosphere. This eliminates all those planets in the universe that are notabout the same size and weight as the earth. A smaller planet would lose its atmosphe