外文翻译生物

1、Genetically modified food safety issuesAbstractAs we all know,modern biotechnology has brought human numerous benefits:Through the application of biotechnology, a broad and significant increase of food production can be happily seen at global agricultural production. But when we enjoy the enormous b

2、enefits of the GM food,a new but alarming problem also came that if these food is safe enough for people?if something seriously happened,what can we do?Maybe you can find some answer in this thesis.Key Words: modern biotechnology GM food safetyChapter 1 IntroductionWhat is biotechnology?Maybe not to

3、o mang people know its definition accurately.Biotechnology is a technology which can reform and make the use of the natural lives on the ingredient of them by taking advantage of the research finds in life sciences which can greatly follow the will of people.In its purest form,the term "biotech

4、nology" refers to the use of living organisms or their products to modify human health and the human environment. Biotechnology in one form or another has flourished since prehistoric times. When the first human beings realized that they could plant their own crops and breed their own animals,

5、they learned to use biotechnology. The discovery that fruit juices fermented into wine, or that milk could be converted into cheese or yogurt, or that beer could be made by fermenting solutions of malt and hops began the study of biotechnology. When the first bakers found that they could make a soft

6、, spongy bread rather than a firm, thin cracker, they were acting as fledgling biotechnologists. The first animal breeders, realizing that different physical traits could be either magnified or lost by mating appropriate pairs of animals, engaged in the manipulations of biotechnology. Chapter 2 Stat

7、us of genetically modified foodsAs we all know,modern biotechnology has brought human numerous benifits:Through the application of biotechnology, a broad and significant increase of food production can be happily seen at global agricultural production.Since 1983 when the first time human got transge

8、nic tobacco, potato by using recombinant DNA technology,the plant genetic engineering technology in the world has achieved rapid development of transgenic plants for research and development,which has made a series of remarkable progress and has Successfully nurtured a number of crops with disease-r

9、esistance,insecticide resistance and even an incredible high-yield.with the help of them,we can feed another more than millions of people,According to statistics,up to now ,no less than 1.6 billion people have benefits from biotechnology.in the area,our mother country China has made tremendous contr

10、ibutions to the world's biotechnology.what must be mentioned is BT cotton and hybrid rice of Yuan Longping. Commercialize genetically modified crops dates from the year of 1996,including Soybeans, cotton, cereals and oilseed rape.GM crops now occupy 10% of global arable land. In 2010,81% of worl

11、dwide soybean, 64% cotton, 29% and 23% of the grain is genetically modified oilseed rape.Totally,29 countries grow GM products all over the world.the top three country with the largest area of cultivation is United States, Brazil and Argentina.The problem About the safety of GM products has been con

12、troversial.Genetically modified food will bring human and animal allergens and toxins of unknown.Chapter 3 GM food safety issues International consensus has been reached on the principles regarding evaluation of the food safety of genetically modified plants. The concept of substantial equivalence h

13、as been developed as part of a safety evaluation framework, based on the idea that existing foods can serve as a basis for comparing the properties of genetically modified foods with the appropriate counterpart. Application of the concept is not a safety assessment per se, but helps to identify simi

14、larities and differences between the existing food and the new product, which are then subject to further toxicological investigation. Substantial equivalence is a starting point in the safety evaluation, rather than an endpoint of the assessment. Consensus on practical application of the principle

15、should be further elaborated. Experiences with the safety testing of newly inserted proteins and of whole genetically modified foods are reviewed, and limitations of current test methodologies are discussed. The development and validation of new profiling methods such as DNA microarray technology, p

16、roteomics, and metabolomics for the identification and characterization of unintended effects, which may occur as a result of the genetic modification, is recommended. The assessment of the allergenicity of newly inserted proteins and of marker genes is discussed. An issue that will gain importance

17、in the near future is that of post-marketing surveillance of the foods derived from genetically modified crops. It is concluded, among others that, that application of the principle of substantial equivalence has proven adequate, and that no alternative adequate safety assessment strategies are avai

18、lable.At an early stage in the introduction of recombinant-DNA technology in modern plant breeding and biotechnological food production systems, efforts began to define internationally harmonized evaluation strategies for the safety of foods derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Two ye

19、ars after the first successful transformation experiment in plants (tobacco) in 1988, the International Food Biotechnology Council (IFBC) published the first report on the issue of safety assessment of these new varieties (IFBC, 1990). The comparative approach described in this report has laid the b

20、asis for later safety evaluation strategies. Other organizations, such as the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) h

21、ave developed further guidelines for safety assessment which have obtained broad international consensus among experts on food safety evaluation.At 1993. the OECD formulated the concept of substantial equivalence as a guiding tool for the assessment of genetically modified foods, which has been furt

22、her elaborated in the following years (OECD, 1993; OECD, 1996; OECD, 1998; Figure 1). The concept of substantial equivalence is part of a safety evaluation framework based on the idea that existing foods can serve as a basis for comparing the properties of a genetically modified food with the approp

23、riate counterpart. The existing food supply is considered to be safe, as experienced by a long history of use, although it is recognized that foods may contain many anti-nutrients and toxicants which, at certain levels of consumption, may induce deleterious effects in humans and animals. Application

24、 of the concept is not a safety assessment per se, but helps to identify similarities and potential differences between the existing food and the new product, which is then subject to further toxicological investigation. Three scenarios are envisioned in which the genetically modified plant or food

25、would be (i) substantially equivalent; (ii) substantially equivalent except for the inserted trait; or (iii) not equivalent at all. A compositional analysis of key components, including key nutrients and natural toxicants, is the basis of assessment of substantial equivalence, in addition to phenoty

26、pic and agronomic characteristics of the genetically modified plant.In the first scenario, no further specific testing is required as the product has been characterized as substantially equivalent to a traditional counterpart whose consumption is considered to be safe, for example, starch from potat

27、o. In the second scenario, substantial equivalence would apply except for the inserted trait, and so the focus of the safety testing is on this trait, for example, an insecticidal protein of genetically modified tomato. Safety tests include specific toxicity testing according to the nature and funct

28、ion of the newly expressed protein; potential occurence of unintended effects; potential for gene transfer from genetically modified foods to human/animal gut flora; the potential allergenicity of the newly inserted traits; and the role of the new food in the diet . In the third scenario, the novel

29、crop or food would be not substantially equivalent with a traditional counterpart, and a case-by-case assessment of the new food must be carried out according to the characteristics of the new product.FAO（short for Food and Agriculture Organization） and WHO(World Health Organization) have been organ

30、izing workshops and consultations on the safety of GMOs since 1990. At the Joint FAO/WHO Consultation in 1996 (FAO/WHO, 1996) it was recommended that the safety evaluation should be based on the concept of substantial equivalence, which is a dynamic, analytical exercise in the assessment of the safe

31、ty of a new food relative to an existing food. The following parameters should be considered to determine the substantial equivalence of a genetically modified plant: molecular characterization; phenotypic characteristics; key nutrients; toxicants; and allergens.The distinction between three levels

32、of substantial equivalence (complete, partial, non-) of the novel food to its counterpart, and the subsequent decisions for further testing based upon substantial equivalence, are similar to those defined by OECD (1996).The Codex Alimentarius Commission of FAO/WHO is committed to the international h

33、armonization of food standards. Food standards developed by Codex Alimentarius should be adopted by the participating national governments. The Codex ad hoc Intergovern mental Task Force on Foods Derived from Biotechnology has the task to develop standards, guidelines and other recommendations for g

34、enetically modified foods. During its first session in Chiba (Japan) in March 2000 definitions were agreed concerning the risk assessment and risk analysis of genetically modified foods. Risk assessment covers issues such as food safety, substantial equivalence and long-term health effects, while ri

35、sk analysis may include decision-making and post-market monitoring.An Expert Consultation held in Geneva, Switzerland in May/June 2000 evaluated experiences gathered since the 1996 Consultation. Topics considered included substantial equivalence, unintended effects of genetic modification, food safe

36、ty, nutritional effects, antibiotic resistance marker genes, and allergenicity. The Consultation endorsed the concept of substantial equivalence as a pragmatic approach for the safety assessment of genetically modified foods, and concluded that at present no suitable alternative strategies are avail

37、able. Application of the concept is a starting point for safety assessment, rather than an end-point. It identifies similarities and possible differences between the genetically modified food and its appropriate counterpart, which should then be assessed further.The issue of the potential occurrence

38、 of unintended effects due to the genetic modification process, such as the loss of existing traits or the acquisition of new ones, was examined. The occurrence of unintended effects is not unique for the application of recDNA techniques, but also occurs frequently in conventional breeding. Present

39、approaches to detecting such effects focus on chemical analysis of known nutrients and toxicants (targeted approach). In order to increase the possibility of detecting unintended effects, profiling/fingerprinting methods are considered useful alternatives (non-targeted approach). This is of particul

40、ar interest for plants with extensive modifications of the genome (second generation of genetically modified foods) where chances of the occurrence of unintended effects may increase.Animal studies are deemed necessary to obtain information on the characteristics of newly expressed proteins, analogo

41、us to the conventional toxicity testing of food additives. Testing of whole foods may be considered if relevant changes in composition may have taken place in addition to the expected ones; however, such studies should be considered on a case-by-case basis, taking the limitations of this type of stu

42、dy into account. The minimum requirement to demonstrate the safety of long-term consumption of a food is a sub chronic 90-day study. Longer-term studies may be needed if the results of a 90-day study indicate adverse effects such as proliferative changes in tissues.The Expert Consultation noted that

43、, in general, very little is known about the potential long-term effects of any foods, and that identification of such effects may be very difficult, if not impossible, due to the many confounding factors and the great genetic variability in food-related effects among the population. Thus the identi

44、fication of long-term effects specifically attributable to genetically modified foods is highly unlikely. Epidemiological studies are not likely to identify such effects given the high background of undesirable effects of conventional foods. The Consultation was of the opinion that pre-market safety

45、 assessment already gives an assurance that genetically modified foods are as safe as their conventional counterparts. Experimental studies, such as randomized controlled human trials, if properly performed, might provide additional evidence for human safety in the medium to long term.Chapter 4 Conc

46、lusionFrom the above,we can clearly see that since the GM food isn't exactly safe,but our country and some international organizations like FAO and WHO developed a sufficient number of rules and regulations to reduce the risk of accidents.and what's more,since now not any serious GM safety a

47、ccident has happened.so we can enjoy the benefits of the modern biotechnology.so much worries isn't needed,and we are also trying some new way which can avoid the accident.GM food is safe enough only if we follow the rules.and we can use the modern biotechnology.Reference1Pamela Peter：Pamela Pet

48、ers, from Biotechnology: A Guide To Genetic Engineering. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Inc., 1993.2Fred Gould:Can Agricultural Biotechnology be Green? 3Norman Borlaug:Biotechnology and the Green Revolution转基因食品安全问题摘要：众所周知，现代生物技术给人类带来了许多好处：通过生物技术的广泛应用，在全球农业产品中，可以很容易的看到粮食生产的显著增加。但是，当我们享受转基因食品的巨大利益时，一个新的但令人

49、担忧的问题也来了，如果这些食品对人类是否足够安全？如果有一些严重的事情发生，我们能做些什么呢？也许你可以在这篇论文中找到一些答案。关键字：现代生物技术 转基因食品安全第1章：简介 生物技术是什么？也许不是太多的人知道它的定义。精确的生物技术是一种技术，它可以改革和通过利用在生命科学研究使自然生命的组成部分很大程度上遵循人类的意愿。其最纯粹的形式，“生物技术”一词是指通过生物体或其产品的使用，改善人类健康和人类生存环境。 生物技术自史前时代就在以一种形式或另一种形式蓬勃发展。当人类意识到，他们可以种植自己的粮食和培育自己的动物，他们就学会了使用生物技术。当他们发现果汁发酵成酒，牛奶变成奶酪或酸奶

50、，啤酒可以通过发酵麦芽糖和啤酒花制得的结论时，就开始了对生物技术的研究。当第一个面包师发现，他们可以制得松软的面包，而不是一个坚硬的薄饼干，他们被作为初出茅庐的生物技术。第一个动物饲养员发现不同的身体特征可以通过动物之间适当的交配放大或消失，他就在从事生物技术的处理。 第2章：转基因食品的现状大家都知道，现代生物技术已经给人类带来了巨大的好处：通过生物技术的应用，在全球农业生产中，食品生产大量而广泛的增长可以容易的被看到。自从1983年人类第一次利用转基因烟草，马铃薯重组DNA技术，转基因植物的研究和开发，取得了一系列显着的进展，并已成功培育抗病，抗药性作物，甚至世界植物基因工程技术已取得快速

51、发展和令人难以置信的高产。在他们的帮助下，我们可以养活另外一百多万人。据统计，到现在为止，不到16亿人已经从转基因产品中获益。我们的祖国，中国已对生物技术做出了巨大的贡献。必须提到的是BT棉花和袁隆平的杂交水稻。商业化转基因水稻可以追溯到1996年，包括大豆，棉花，谷物和油籽，油菜作物占全球耕地的10。在2010年，全球81%的大豆，64的棉花，29和23的粮食是转基因产品，全世界有29个国家生长转基因作物。具有最大耕作面积的三个国家是美国，巴西和阿根廷。关于转基因产品的安全问题已经引起争论。转基因食品将会给人类和动物带来未知的过敏和毒素。第3章：转基因食品的安全问题 关于转基因植物食品安全评

52、估的原则，国际上已达成共识。等价物的概念已经发展成安全评估框架的一部分，现存食物的合适副本可以充当与转基因食品安全对比的一个基础。应用的概念本身并不是一个安全评估，但有助于鉴定现有的产品与新产品的相似与不同。等价物是在安全性评价的起点，而不是一个评估的终点。这个原则的实际应用所达成的共识应该被更好的制作。新插入的蛋白质和整个转基因食品的安全性被测试，并讨论现代测试方法的局限性。新测试方法的发展和确认，像DNA芯片技术，蛋白质组学和新陈代谢学对鉴定和描述都产生意想不到的效果，这可能会做为基因修正的结果被介绍。对新插入标记基因的蛋白质的过敏性评估进行了讨论。来自转基因作物的食品上市后监测的问题，将

53、在不久的将来得到重视。想其它的一样，它被总结为等价物原则的应用已充分证明，而且没有其他足够的安全评估策略可用。在引进现代植物育种生物技术和粮食生产系统重组DNA技术的早期阶段，努力开始转向对来自于转基因生物体（GMOs）的安全问题，这有关定义国际的和谐评估战略。1988年，首次在植物上（烟草）成功实验后的两年，国际食品生物技术局（IFBC）公布了对这些新品种安全性评估问题的首份报告（IFBC，1990年）。在本报告所述的比较研究的方法，为以后的安全性评价战略奠定了基础。其他组织，如经济合作与发展组织（OECD），联合国粮食，农业组织（FAO），世界卫生组织（WHO）和国际生命科学学会（ILSI

54、）组织，都已经为安全评估制定了进一步的指导方针，获得食品安全评估专家的广泛国际共识。在1993年，经济合作与发展组织制定的等价概念作为重大指导工具来评估转基因食品，这在随后的几年中得到了进一步的阐述（OECD，1993;经合组织，1996年，经合组织，1998年;图1）。实质等同的概念是食品安全评估框架的一部分，这个评估框架是依据现存事物充当一个基础来与其对应的转基因产品作对照。现有的食品供应被认为是安全的，因为经历了很长的使用历史，尽管它是公认可能含有多种抗营养物质和有毒物质的食品，在一定的消耗量下，可能会对人类和动物产生有害的影响。应用的概念本身并不是一个安全评估，但有助于确定现有的食品和新产品之间的相似有不同，并作进一步的毒理学来调查。设想三种情景中的转基因植物或食物：（i）等价物;（ii）除了插入特征的等价物;（iii）没有等价物。成分分析的关键部件，包括主要营养成分和天然毒物，是实质等同评估的基础，除了转基因植物的性状和农业特征。在第一种情况下，没有对产品做进一步特定测试的要求，因为该产品已具有与其对应传统产品的特征，他们的消费被认为是安全的，例如，马铃薯淀粉的特点。在第二种情况下，除了插入的特性，该等价物将合适，所以安全检测的重点是这个插入的特征，例如，具有杀虫蛋白的转基因