胡壮麟语言学总复习ppt

1、2021/6/161ContentslChapter 1 Language and LinguisticslChapter 2 Speech Sounds: phonetics and PhonologylChapter 3 Words and MorphologylChapter 4 Sentences: SyntaxlChapter 5 Meaning: SemanticslChapter 6 Meaning in use: PragmaticslChapter 7 Language, Culture and ThoughtlChapter 8 Language Acquisition a

2、nd LearninglChapter 9 Schools of linguistics2021/6/162Chapter 1 Language and Linguisticsl1.1 Language and Humanl1.2 Design features of languagel1.3 Functions of Languagel1.4 Linguistics and its branchesl1.5 Basic Concepts in linguistics2021/6/1631.1 Definition of languagelIn the TextbooklLanguage is

3、 a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interacti

4、on including such associated factors as nonverbal cures, motivation, and social-cultural roleslLanguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2021/6/1641.2 Design features of languagelDesign features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human

5、language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. lArbitrariness/lProductivity/lDuality/lDisplacement/lCultural transmission2021/6/165ArbitrarinesslArbitrariness refers to the property of language which reveals that there is no direct natural link between the linguistic form and

6、its meaning. lHowever, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds. lBut the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. lThe arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2021/6/166Do

7、 you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?l Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which ar

8、e coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary. 2021/6/167ProductivitylProductivity refers to the property of language which en

9、ables language to generate new utterances by its users. lThe property of language enables us to express our unlimited and new ideas. lProductivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their

10、users can send and receive. 2021/6/168DualitylDuality is the nature of language which shows that language is a system and consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. lAt the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningle

11、ss, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. lThis duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about

12、anything within their knowledge. lNo animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 2021/6/169DisplacementlDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in f

13、ar-away places. lIn other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker lAnimal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 2021/6/1610Cultural transmissionlCultural transmission is the property of language which req

14、uires us human to learn a language.lHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language.lThe details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically trans-mitted . 2021/6/1611Discretenessl

15、Discreteness is the property of language which enables the speakers of a language to identify the sound elements in its words. lEach sound is discrete and distinct and thus can be combined together to make different forms.lIt is the structural feature of language that words are made up of elemental

16、sounds2021/6/16121.3 Functions of languagelMalinowski: pragmatic function; magical function; phatic functionlJakobson: referential, poetic, emotive, conative, phatic, metaligual functionl Halliday: metafunctions: ideational function; interpersonal function; textual function2021/6/16131.4 Linguistics

17、 and its brancheslBasic branches of linguistics Phonetics: speech soundslPhonology: rules in speech soundslMorphology: words and their formationlSyntax: rules of sentenceslSemantics: meaningGrammarPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemantics2021/6/1614Other branches of linguisticslPragmaticslAnthropological l

18、inguisticslPsycholinguisticslSociolinguisticslNeurolinguisticslApplied linguisticslComputational linguistics2021/6/16151.5 Some concepts in LinguisticslDescriptive vs prescriptivelSynchronic vs diachroniclSpeech and writinglLangue and parolelCompetence and performance2021/6/16161) Prescriptive and D

19、escriptivelPrescriptivism prescribes rules of what is correct. It creates rules of grammarlDescriptivism describe the way people actually speak and write their language, not to prescribe how they ought to speak or write.2021/6/1617How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? l Tradi

20、tional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on high (religious, literary) written lan-guage . It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data i

21、n an objective and scientific way. 2021/6/16182) Synchronic and DiachroniclThe diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a languagelThe synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.lSynchronic description h

22、as priority over diachronic description.2021/6/1619How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?lThe description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de-scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A sy

23、nchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time. 2021/6/16203) Langue and ParoleLangueParoleThe abstract systemA collective body of knowledgeAc

24、quired by all members of a community of speakersThe particular actualities of individual utterancesThe contingent executive side of thingsThe relative superficial behavioral reflexes of knowledgeThe use of language in utterance2021/6/1621What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?lThe

25、 distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. lLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. lLangue is the set o

26、f conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. lLangue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. lLangue

27、 is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 2021/6/16224) Competence and performancelChomskylCompetence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relationslPer

28、formance refers to what we do when we speak or listen. The infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies and errors.2021/6/1623How do you understand competence and performance ?l American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s proposed the distinction b

29、etween competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambig

30、uous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speakers knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky

31、 believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.2021/6/1624Saussures distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differ

32、ences?lAlthough Saussures distinction and Chomskys are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a prop

33、erty of the mind of each individual.2021/6/1625 Speech and writinglSpeech and writing are two systems of language.lSpeech has priority over writing.2021/6/1626Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?lFirst, the spoken form is prior to the written fo

34、rm and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of lan-guage. lSecond, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes lFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother ton

35、gue. 2021/6/1627Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?l1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. l2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. l3) Speech is always the w

36、ay in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school. 2021/6/1628Chapter Two: Speech sounds: phonetics and phonology2.1 Phonetics2.2 Phonology2021/6/16292.1 PhoneticslPhonetics: the scientific study of speech sounds, concerning with defining

37、and classifying speech sounds.lSpeech is a chain with three stages: production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the messagelSo phonetics are in three branches: articulatory phonetics (identification and classification of individual sounds), acoustic phonetics (ana

38、lysis and measurement of sound waves, the physical features of speech sounds) and auditory phonetics (perception of speech)2021/6/1630Speech sounds and non-speech soundslWe can make a variety of sounds. But we choose some of them in our speech. We make sounds by means of the air out of or into our b

39、ody. So we have: Pulmonic and non-pulmonic speech sounds in our speech. Pulmonic egressive airstream vs nonpulmonic ingressive airstream2021/6/1631Articulation of soundslSpeech organs: lungs, trachea, larynx, pharyngeal, oral cavities, and nasal cavities.lGlottis: vocal folds lVoicing: vibration of

40、the vocal folds: voiced and voiceless: some consonants and all vowels2021/6/1632Description of speech soundslWe use Phonetic Alphabets to describe speech soundslInternational Phonetic alphabet (IPA): a unique written representation (a list of symbols) of every sound in every languagelDiacritics: any

41、 mark in sound description additional to letters or other basic elements. , lNarrow description: detailedlBroad description: general2021/6/1633ConsonantslConsonants are produced by temporarily obstructing or restricting the airstream as it passes through the mouth. lConsonants may be divided into tw

42、o groups in terms of 2 dimensions: the place of articulation and the manner of articulation. 2021/6/16342021/6/1635VowelslVowels are characterized by the absence of obstruction of the airstream in the mouth. They are produced without any obstruction or restriction of the airstreamlThree dimensions f

43、or the configuration of the vowels : openness, backness and roundinglEach of the dimensions is continuous, the difference between any two vowels in terms of the openness, backness and rounding is always a matter of more or less lVowels can be distinguished as oral vowels and nasal vowels2021/6/1636

44、Cardinal vowels l8 primary cardinal vowels lanother 8 cardinal vowels, the secondary cardinal vowels : the front rounded and the back unrounded lMonophthong:a vowel whose quality remains stable during its production is known as monophthong. lDiphthong: A vowel whose quality changed during its produc

45、tion, in fact a combination of two monophthongs is known as diphthong. 2021/6/16372021/6/16382021/6/1639Give the correct technical terms for the following expressionslBoth lips bilabiallOpening between vocal cords voicelesslTeeth dentallHard roof of mouth palatallRidge behind upper teech alveolarlLo

46、wer lip to upper teeth labiodentallBack of tongue to soft rear roof of mouth velar 2021/6/1640Write the corresponding sound segments according to the descriptions.la) Voiceless bilabial stop: _p_lb) Voiced alveolar nasal: _n_lc) Voiced velar stop: _ld) Central lax unrounded vowel: _le) High back ten

47、se rounded vowel: _u:_2021/6/1641For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features which they all share.a. f v s fricative b. i: i e e: front c. d l s z t alveolard. b d g plosive, voicede. j w voiced 2021/6/1642What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vo

48、wels? l1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth. l2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. l3) According to the shape

49、 of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.l 4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound. 2021/6/16432.2 Phonology: Sound patternslPhonology focuses on the linguistic (phonological) rules that are

50、used to specify the manner in which speech sounds are organized and combined into meaningful units, which are then combined to form syllables, words and sentences. lSounds are chosen to be combined in different languages: number and type2021/6/1644What are the major differences between phonology and

51、 phonetics?lThey differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the oth

52、er hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 2021/6/1645Assimilation: a rule for neighbouring soundslSounds in neighbourhood may

53、influence each other.ll and r becomes voiceless when they follow s, p, t and k, as in slay, pray, tray, and clay.lVowels become a bit longer when they are before voiced consonants, as in lip and lid, bit and bid.lVowels before a nasal consonant become nasalized, e.g. fan, beam.2021/6/1646Phonologica

54、l ruleslgeneral form: AB/C_DlNasalization rule: vowelnasal/_nasallAspiration rule: voiceless stop aspirated/word initially and initially in stressed syllableslSequential rule: a syllable sequence: (CCC) V (CCCC). Consonant clusters in syllable initial position must follow the following sequence: /s/

55、:/p/,/t/,/k/:/w/,/r/,/l/,/j/lAssimilation rules: two phonemes become identical or similar when adjacent to each other, for instance, nasalization, devoicing, velarization, aspiration, dentalizationlDeletion and epenthesis: the dropping of certain sound or the adding of certain sound.2021/6/1647Rule

56、orderinglRules must be applied according to certain sequence. For instance, the plural form of desk, bed and bus follows three rules in surface output: a. The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds. Devoicing rule b. The /z/ appears after voiced sounds Basic form c. The /z/ appears after sibilants Epent

57、hesis Devoicing: zs/ -voice, C _ Epenthesis: /sibilant _ z 2021/6/1648Rule orderingl The application of the rules follows the sequence: epenthesis-devoicing /desk + z/ /bed + z/ / bs + z/ N/A N/A s N/A N/A desks bedz bszIf we apply the devoicing rule first, then the epenthesis rulel/desk + z/ /bed +

58、 z/ / bs + z/l s N/A sl N/A N/A l desks bedz b s s2021/6/1649Phoneme and allophonelAn abstract unit of speech sound is a phoneme. It is not further analyzable into smaller units. And it can distinguish meaninglE.g. seed and deedlA phoneme has different realizations in speech. The different realizati

59、ons make the allophones of the same phoneme.lFor instance, /l/ are different in the words lap and pull. But the difference does not make different meaning2021/6/1650Minimal pair and minimal setlA phoneme can be checked by comparing two words which are similar in all members except one in the same po

60、sition. For instance, man and men, bit and pit, seed and deedlWe call these pairs of words as minimal pairs.lAnd those in group, like bit, pit, sit, lit, fit, wit, etc. as minimal set2021/6/1651Distinctive featureslA phoneme is different from another for a particular different feature, we call this