耶鲁大学心理学导论中英文字幕

1、袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀

2、蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄

3、衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈

4、螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂

5、薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇

6、螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁

7、蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈

8、袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂

9、螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆

10、薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁

11、螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁薅蚅袅肁莈薁羄膃薄衿羄芆莇螅羃蒈薂螁羂膈蒅蚇羁芀蚀薃羀莂蒃袂罿肂虿螈羈膄蒁蚄肈芇蚇薀肇荿蒀袈肆聿芃袄肅芁薈螀肄莃莁蚆肃肃薆薂肂膅荿袁肂芇薅螇膁莀莇蚃膀聿薃蕿腿膂莆羈膈莄蚁袄膇蒆蒄螀膇膆蚀蚆螃芈蒂薂螂莁蚈袀袁肀蒁螆袀膃蚆蚂袀芅葿蚈衿蒇节羇袈膇薇袃袇艿莀蝿袆莁膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂

12、芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆

13、蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃

14、艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈

15、膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂

16、莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆

17、膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁

18、葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅

19、芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿

20、薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆

21、莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀

22、膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅

23、蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿

24、芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃

25、薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇

26、莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄

27、膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿

28、蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅莈蚂羀羈芄蚁蚀膄膀蚀螂羆蒈虿袅膂莄螈羇羅芀螇蚇膀膆螆蝿羃薅螆羁腿蒁螅肄肁莇螄螃芇芃莀袆肀腿荿羈芅蒇荿蚈肈莃蒈螀芃艿蒇袂肆膅蒆肄衿薄蒅螄膅蒀蒄袆羇莆蒄罿膃节蒃蚈羆膈薂螁膁蒇薁袃羄莃薀羅腿艿蕿螅羂芅薈袇芈膁薈羀肁葿薇虿芆莅薆螂聿芁蚅袄芄膇蚄羆肇蒆蚃蚆袀莂蚂袈肅 今天我们要讲的是语言this class today is about language.很大程度上来说语言就是行为and language is,

29、to a large extent, where the action is. 人类语言的研究the study of human language是各种人性理论的重要领域has been the battleground over different theories of human nature. 因此无论是哲学家心理学家so, every philosopher or psychologist人类学家还是神经系统学家or humanist or neuroscientist只要他们曾经研究过人类who has ever thought about people便会就语言的特性及其功能提

30、出某些理论has had to make some claim about the nature of language and how it works.我所说的这些学者包括了im including here people like亚里士多德柏拉图休莫aristotle and plato, hume,洛克弗洛依德以及斯金纳locke, freud and skinner.而这些理论则包括了im also including modern-day approaches计算理论认知神经科学进化论to computational theory, cognitive neuroscience,

31、evolutionary theory以及文化心理学的诸多当代理论and cultural psychology.如果你想要理解关于人类本质if you hope to make it with theory of what people are 及其行为模式的理论and how people work,就必须得探讨并解释语言you have to explain and talk about language.事实上语言是非常有意思的in fact, language is sufficiently interesting that,与本门课上探讨的其他主题不同unlike most oth

32、er things ill talk about in this class, 对它的研究形成了一个完整的专业there is an entier field devoted to this study即语言学专业the field of linguistics这个专业致力于研究各种语言的that is entirely devoted to studying细微差异及其结构the nuances and structures of different languages.在详细讨论之前我想首先下一个定义now, ill first, before getting into details,

33、make a definitional point.当我谈到语言时when im talking about language我指的是诸如英语荷兰语im meaning systems like english and dutch沃皮利语意大利语土耳其语and warlpiri and italian and turkish乌尔都语这样的语言系统and urdu以及我们在正式上课之前的课堂演示中and what weve seen and heard right now in class in the demonstration所看到和听到的语言系统that preceded the form

34、al lecture.现在你可以应用另一种意义上的语言now, you could use language in a different sense. 在此意义上 "语言"可以被用来描述you could use the term "language" to describe 狗儿在干什么what dogs do,黑猩猩在干什么or what chimpanzees do,或是鸟儿在干什么or birds.也可用来描述音乐you could use language to describe music,即音乐语言talk about the-a mus

35、ical language或是去描述艺术or art,或任何的交流系统or any communicative system,都是没问题的and theres actually nothing wrong with that.因为并没有什么theres no rule关于应当如何运用"语言"一词的规定about how youre supposed to use the word "language." 但问题是but the problem is如果你无限宽泛地使用"语言"一词if you use the word "la

36、nguage" impossibly, incredibly broadly,那么从科学的角度来看then from a scientific point of view探究语言就变得毫无意义了it becomes useless to ask interesting questions about it.如果语言能够表示一切if language can refer to just about everything从英语到交通信号from english to traffic signals,那我们就无法得出各种有趣的概论then were not going to be able

37、 to find interesting generalizations或是无法对语言进行科学的研究or do good science about it.因此我想做的是so, what i want to do is,我想来谈谈语言的科学定义i want to discuss the scientific notion of language,首先我会将自己限定在at first restricting myself诸如英语荷兰语美国手语to systems like english and dutch and american sign language 或迪瓦霍语等语言系统之下and n

38、avajo and so on.一旦我们在狭义上once weve made some generalizations得出了某些关于语言的概论about language in this narrow sense,那我们就可以发问we could then ask, and we will ask,诸如动物交流系统之类的其他系统to what extent会在多大程度上do other systems such as animal communication systems符合这个狭隘的定义呢relate to this narrower definition.我们可以发问so we coul

39、d ask,从狭义上说语言拥有何种特性in this narrow sense, what properties do languages have 然后我们可以接着发问and then go on to ask,从广义上说in a broader sense,哪些其他的交流系统也同样拥有那些特性what other communicative systems also possess those properties.有些关于语言的知识非常明显well, some things are obvious about language这是我们将会提到的的一些问题so here are some;

40、 here are the questions we will ask. 我们今天就主要来讨论这些问题this will frame our discussion today.我们将首先温习一些语言的基本事实well first go over some basic facts about language. 我们将会谈及各种语言的共性well talk about what languages share,谈及语言的发展well talk about how language develops,以及非人类的语言交流and well talk about language and commun

41、ication in nonhumans. 我用一段演示来开始今天的课i began this class with a demonstration of这段演示阐述了语言非常重要的两个事实-that illustrates two very important facts about language.其一是所有语言都共享one is that languages all share一些深层且复杂的共性some deep and intricate universals.尤其是所有的语言都至少in particular, all languages, at minimum,能够有效地表达抽象

42、概念are powerful enough to convey an abstract notion like this; 在某种意义上来说abstract in the sense抽象概念能够表达思想that it talks about thoughts能够表述物体的位置与空间关系and it talks about a proposition and spatial relations in objects. 世界上并不存在theres no language in the world无法谈论抽象概念的语言that you just cannot talk about abstract

43、things with.所有语言都可以every language can do this.但这个演示也阐明了语言的另一个事实but the demonstration also illustrated another fact about language,即语言如何不同which is how different languages are.两个事实听上去是不同的they sound different.如果你掌握了一种语言if you know one language,你就不需要再去掌握其他的语言了you dont necessarily know another.不仅是因为你不能理解

44、另外一种语言its not merely that you cant understand it.比如说手语看上去会很奇怪或是异常it could sound strange or look unusual in the case of a sign language.因此任何完善的语言理论and so, any adequate theory of language都必须谈及不同语言间的共性和差异has to allow for both the commonalities and the differences across languages.这也是心理学和语言认知学and this i

45、s the puzzle faced by所面临的难题the psychology and cognitive science of language.我以达尔文提出的well, lets start with an interesting claim一个有趣的语言观点来作为开始about language made by charles darwin.查尔斯达尔文写到so, darwin writes,"人类拥有说话的本能倾向"man has an instinctive tendency to speak,我们会看到幼儿含糊吐字as we see in the babb

46、le of our young children,然而儿童却并不具有烘焙while no child has an instinctive tendency酿酒或是写作的本能倾向"to bake, brew or write."达尔文在此所表达的观点and what darwin is claiming here,极具争议而又非常有趣and its a controversial and interesting claim,这个观点认为语言之所以特殊is that language is special是因为总有某些倾向能力或本能in that theres some so

47、rt of propensity or capacity or instinct 使得语言与他所举的其他例子有所不同for language unlike the other examples he gives. 我们的一切并非都是天生的not everything comes natural to us但达尔文却认为语言是与生俱来的but darwin suggests that language does.我们为什么要相信他的观点呢well, why should we believe this?达尔文的观点得到了一些基本事实的支持well, there are some basic fa

48、cts that support darwins claim.举例来说所有人类社会都拥有语言for one thing, every normal. every human society has language.在旅行过程中文化与文化相互碰撞in the course of traveling, cultures encounter other culture 而人们通常则会遇到and they often encounter cultures与其自身所处文化截然不同的另一些文化that are very different from their own.但在人类历史的进程中but thr

49、ough the course of human history,还没有人曾经遇到过nobody has ever encountered another group of humans没有语言的人类族群that did not have a language.这是否表明语言就是天生的呢does this show that its built in?未必可能只是文化创新而已well, not necessarily. it could be a cultural innovation.比如说可能只是因为it could be, for instance,语言是一个非常棒的创新that lan

50、guage is such a good idea所有文化都接受了它并且发展了它that every culture comes across it and develops it.几乎所有的文化都会使用某些餐具just about every culture uses some sort of utensils to eat food with,刀叉筷子勺子a knife and a fork, chopsticks, a spoon.之所以都用餐具this probably is not because并不是因为使用餐具是人类本性use of eating utensils is huma

51、n nature,而是因为所有文化都不断发现but rather, its because its just a very useful thing餐具非常的实用that cultures discover over and over again.我们知道语言可能并不是这个情况well, we know that this probably is not true with regard to language.我们之所以这样认为and one reason we know this是因为有许多的个案研究is because of the demonstrated case studies都证

52、明了一代人之内是可以创造出语言的where a language is created within a single generation.这些个案研究曾在历史上得到多次验证and these case studies have happened over history. 典型案例就是奴隶交易中的人们the standard example is people involved in the slave trade. 为了获得烟草棉花the slave trade revolving around tobacco or cotton咖啡或糖块的奴隶交易or coffee or sugar会

53、将来自不同语言背景的奴隶would tend to mix slaves and laborers和劳动者们混在一起from different language backgrounds,这也在某种程度上in part deliberately,谨慎地避免了可能的造反so as to avoid the possibility of revolt.这些来自不同文化的被奴役的个体what would happen is these people who were enslaved from different cultures会创造出一种临时的交流系统would develop a makesh

54、ift communication system以便他们之间能够互相交流so they could talk to one another.这就是所谓的"混杂语言"and this is called a "pidgin," p-i-d-g-i-n, a pidgin.他们会使用这种混杂语言来进行交流and this pidgin was how they would talk.而实际上混杂语言并不是一种语言and this pidgin was not a language.它只不过是从身边的不同语言当中it was strings of words

55、borrowed借用了一些单词串from the different languages around them以随意的方式将它们放在一起and put together in sort of haphazard ways.问题是在这种社会中长大的儿童the question is what happens to the children究竟会怎样who are raised in this society.你可能会以为他们也将学会这种混杂语言and you might expect it that they would come to speak a pidgin,但事实并非如此but th

56、ey dont.实际情况是在一代人的时间里what happens is, in the course of a single generation, 他们创造出了属于自己的语言they develop their own language.他们用丰富的语法语态和语音they create a language创造出一种语言with rich syntax and morphology and phonology,我们马上会来讲这些术语的terms that well understand in a few minutes.他们创造的这种语言被称为克利奥尔语and this language

57、that they create is called a "creole." 而这些叫做克利奥尔语的语言and languages that we know now as creoles,再次说明了它们的历史the word refers back to their history.就是说它们是由混杂语言发展而来的that means that they were developed from pidgins. 这一点很有意思因为这表明and this is interesting because this suggests从某种程度上来说that to some exte

58、nt语言的使用理解以及学习能力the ability to use and understand and learn language是人类本性的一部分is part of human nature.它无需深远的文化史it doesnt require an extensive cultural history.甚至任何一个普通的小孩rather, just about any normal child,即使并未接触过成熟的语言环境even when not exposed to a full-fledged language,也可以创造语言can create a language.而近期更有些关于儿童学习手语的and more recently, theres been case studies of children 个案研究who acquire sign language.研究者在尼加拉瓜曾做过theres a wonderful case一个精彩的手语个案研究in nicaragua in sign language儿童们从本身并不熟悉手语的成年人那里where they acquire si