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8 Fluorescent lamps Fluorescent lamps have now been commercially available for forty years and yet they are still the most widely used and most successful of all the discharge lamps. They have always been an efficient source of converting electrical energy into light, be with the ever-increasing cost of energy recent years have seen the introduction energy-saving fluorescent lamps which are even more efficient. Even so, they are still not fully accepted as a domestic light source except possibly in the kitchen and bathroom. Very recently, smaller lamps have been produced of many different shapes which will, it is hoped, have major applications in the home.荧光灯已商用的四十年，但他们仍然是使用最广泛和最成功的所有的电灯。他们一直是一种高效转换成电能的光，与日益增加的能源成本近年来引进节能荧光灯更为有效。尽管如此，他们仍然没有完全接受作为国内光源，除了可能在厨房和浴室。最近，较小的灯已产生许多不同的形状，这是希望，主要应用在家庭。 8.1 Design8.1.1 PrinciplesShield electrodeFig.8.1 Construction of a fluorescent lamp A standard lamp construction is as shown in Fig.8.1. It consists of a soda-lime glass tube with its inside coated with a fluorescent powder. Tungsten wire electrode coated with a thermionic emitter are sealed into each end and electrode shields are often placed around the electrodes, especially in the more highly loaded lamps, that reduce black marks forming at the ends of the tube due to evaporation of the emitter from the electrode which is thus deposited onto the shield. The shields also reduce flicker. The finished lamp is filled with an inert gas, such as argon, to a pressure of 200 Pa to 660 Pa（1.5 torr to 5 torr）.一个标准是在fig.8.1灯建设。它包括一个钠钙玻璃管内涂有荧光粉。钨丝电极涂层热发射被密封在每个月底和电极屏蔽，往往是放置在电极，特别是在高负载的灯具，减少黑斑形成在管的两端由于蒸发的发射器的电极，从而沉积到盾。盾牌也减少闪烁。成品灯是一个充满惰性气体，如氩气，在压力200帕，660帕（1.5子，5子）。 A small droplet of mercury is introduced into the tube and it is this mercury which used in the discharge to create light. More recently, because mercury is poisonous other forms of mercury dosing have been used which also control more accurate theamount of mercury in each lamp. These include encapsulating controlled doses in glass or metal phials, which are usually welded to the lead wires and then broken using ratio frequency heating to release the mercury after the lamp is completed, or else using combined mercury dispensing/getter strips as electrode shields, which again are heated after the lamp is completed to release the mercury and also getter any gaseous impurities in the lamp. At lamp operating temperatures the mercury pressure is only 1.3Pa and at this pressure most of the radiation emitted from the mercury arc occurs in the ultraviolet at 253.7nm, a resonance line, plus small additions of other ultraviolet lines, and only about 10% in the visible region. Without the phosphor coating present on the tube, the lamp efficacy is only 6 lmW-1, about half that of an incandescent lamp.一小滴水银引入管，这是水星在放电产生光。最近，由于汞是有毒的其他形式的汞剂量被用来控制更精确汞含量在每个灯。这些包括封装控制剂量在玻璃或金属瓶，这通常是焊接到引线，然后打破使用射频加热释放水银灯完成后，或合并使用汞分配/吸气剂带电极屏蔽，而这又是后加热灯完成释放的汞，也任何气体中杂质的吸气剂。在灯工作温度，水银压力只有1.3pa和在这种压力的辐射排放的汞弧发生在紫外线253.7nm，共振线，加上小增加其他紫外线线，只有约10%的可见区域。无磷涂层在管的灯的效果，只有6lmw-1，约一半，白炽灯。 In order to improve the efficacy the 253.7 nm ultraviolet radiation has to be converted into visible light and this is the function of the phosphor on the inside of the tube（Chap.8）. Its effect is to increase the efficacy to about 80 lmW-1, and six times the efficacy of an incandescent lamp.为了提高疗效的253.7纳米的紫外线辐射已被转换成可见光，这是功能上的荧光粉管内（chap.8）。其效果是提高疗效的约80lmw-1，和六倍的功效白炽灯。 The spectrum of the standard white fluorescent lamp.The sharp peaks are the mercury lines and the background continuum is due to the phosphor on the inside of the tube. Changing the type of phosphor used changes the shape of the background continuum and hence the color of the lamp.频谱的标准白色荧光灯。急剧高峰是汞和背景是由于连续的荧光粉管内。改变类型的使用荧光粉的形态变化的背景，因此颜色的灯。 The inert gas filling, such as argon, krypton, neon, or combinations of these gases, does not contribute to the radiation, but performs a number of functions（Sect.6.3.3）including aiding starting, since at room temperature the vapour pressure of mercury is very low. The gas pressure used has to be controlled at the correct value. If it is too high it makes lamp starting difficult and causes a loss in lamp lumen output, but improves lamp life and lumen maintenance and decreases end-darkening. If it is too low it reduces lamp life and lumen maintenance and increases end-darkening, but improves lamp starting and lumen output. A compromise is therefore used which gives adequate lamp life and good starting. Although the inert gas contributes virtually nothing to the light output of the lamp, it does consume energy due to elastic collisions between the electrons and the gas. If we therefore change the gas from argon-based to krypton-based, a heavier gas, these energy losses are reduced and the lamp efficacy can be increased by approximately 5%.惰性气体填充，如氩，氪，霓虹灯，或组合这些气体，不会有助于辐射，但执行的功能（教派。6.3.3）包括协助启动，因为在室温下的汞蒸气压很低。使用气体压力已被控制在正确的价值。如果太高使灯启动困难的原因和损失在灯的流明输出，但提高了灯管的使用寿命和流明维持和减少end-darkening。如果太低，降低灯泡寿命，流明维持和增加end-darkening，但提高了灯的启动和流明输出。妥协是因此使足够的灯泡寿命和良好的起点。虽然惰性气体的贡献几乎没有灯的光输出，它消耗能量，由于弹性碰撞之间的电子和气体。如果我们因此改变气体氩，氪基于1，较重的气体，这些能量损失减少和灯的效果可以增加约5%。 Decreasing the tube diameter also has the effect of making the arc more efficient and therefore providing other design parameters can still be met, such as optimum cool spot temperature and wall loading, further gains in efficacy are possible.减少管直径也使电弧更有效，因此提供了其他设计参数仍然可以见到，如最佳冷点温度和壁负载，进一步提高疗效是可能的。 Since it is a discharge lamp it has a negative coefficient of resistance in operating and it therefore has to be operated with control gear which limits the current through the lamp（Sect.18.1.2）. This control gear, or associated equipment, such as a starter switch, also has to heat the electrodes to provide thermionic emission of electrons to start the discharge（Sect.18.3）.因为它是一个放电灯，它有一个负电阻系数经营，因此必须操作控制装置限制电流通过灯（18.1.2教派。）。该控制装置，或相关的设备，如起动开关，也有加热电极提供热电子发射开始放电（宗18.3。）。 3 Fluorescent LampA fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury vapor. The excited mercury atoms produce short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light more efficiently than an incandescent lamp. Lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost of the lamp. The lamp is more costly because it requires a ballast to regulate the current through the lamp.荧光灯或荧光管是一个气体放电灯用电激发汞蒸气。兴奋的汞原子产生短波紫外线，使荧光粉产生可见光的荧光。荧光灯转换为有用的光效率比白炽灯。降低能源成本通常较高的初始成本抵消的灯。灯是更加昂贵，因为它需要一个镇流器调节电流通过灯。 While larger fluorescent lamps have been mostly used in commercial or institutional buildings, the compact fluorescent lamp is now available in the same popular sizes as incandescent and is used as an energy-saving alternative in homes. (Fig.3.1)Top is two compact fluorescent lamps. Bottom is two regular tubes.而较大的荧光灯已大多用于商业或机构的建筑物，紧凑型荧光灯现已在同样受欢迎的大小作为白炽灯和是用来作为一种替代家庭节能。（fig.3.1）顶部是2紧凑型荧光灯。底部是正则管。 Figure 3.1 Fluorescent lampsTypical F71T12 100 W bi-pin lamp is used in tanning beds. Note the (Hg) symbol indicating it contains mercury. In the US this symbol is now required on all fluorescent bulbs that contain mercury (Fig.3.2).典型的f71t12100瓦双向针灯用于制革病床。注意（汞）表明它含有汞。在美国，这个符号是现在需要在荧光灯含汞（fig.3.2）。 Figure 3.2 Typical F71T12 100 W bi-pin lamp and inside the lamp end3.1 History3.1.1 Physical DiscoveriesFluorescence of certain rocks and other substances had been observed for hundreds of years before its nature was understood. By the middle of the 19th century, experimenters had observed a radiant glow emanating from partially evacuated glass vessels through which an electrical current passed. One of the first to explain it was the Irish scientist Sir George Stokes from the University of Cambridge, who named the phenomenon fluorescence after fluorite, a mineral many of whose samples fluoresce strongly due to impurities. The explanation relied on the nature of electricity and light phenomena as developed by the British scientists Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell in the 1840s. 荧光某些岩石和其他物质已发现数百年前性质的理解。在第十九世纪中的实验，发现了一个辐射辉光产生部分真空玻璃容器通过它的电流通过。一次解释这是爱尔兰科学家斯托克斯爵士从剑桥大学，取名“荧光”现象后，萤石，矿物的许多样品荧光强烈由于杂质。解释依赖于电性与光现象由英国科学家迈克尔法拉第和杰姆斯办事员麦斯威尔在1840。 Little more was done with this phenomenon until 1856 when a German glassblower named Heinrich Geissler created a mercury vacuum pump that evacuated a glass tube to an extent not previously possible. When an electrical current passed through a Geissler tube, a strong green glow on the walls of the tube at the cathode end could be observed. Because it produced some beautiful light effects, the Geissler tube was a popular source of amusement. More important, however, was its contribution to scientific research. One of the first scientists to experiment with a Geissler tube was Julius Plcker who systematically described in 1858 the luminescent effects that occurred in a Geissler tube. He also made the important observation that the glow in the tube shifted position when in proximity to an electromagnetic field. Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observed in 1859 that certain substances gave off light when they were placed in a Geissler tube. He went on to apply thin coatings of luminescent materials to the surfaces of these tubes. Fluorescence occurred, but the tubes were very inefficient and had a short operating life.更多的是做这种现象直到1856时德国吹玻璃命名为海因里希盖斯勒创造了一个汞真空泵，真空玻璃管的程度以前没有可能。当电流通过一个盖斯勒管，一个强大的绿色发光管的墙壁在阴极端可观察。因为它产生了一些美丽的灯光效果，盖斯勒管是一个受欢迎的娱乐的源泉。更重要的是，然而，其贡献的科学研究。科学家之一的实验与盖斯勒管的尤利乌斯这家伙谁系统地叙述了1858个发光的影响发生在盖斯勒管。他也提出了重要的观察，在发光管转移的位置时，在接近一个电磁场。爱德蒙贝克勒观察1859，某些物质发出光时被放置在一个盖斯勒管。他接着用薄涂层发光材料表面的这些管。荧光发生，但管效率很低，并有一个短暂的使用寿命。 Inquiries that began with the Geissler tube continued as even better vacuums were produced. The most famous was the evacuated tube used for scientific research by William Crookes. That tube was evacuated by the highly effective mercury vacuum pump created by Hermann Sprengel. Research conducted by Crookes and others ultimately led to the discovery of the electron in 1897 by J. J. Thomson. But the Crookes tube, as it came to be known, produced little light because the vacuum in it was too good and thus lacked the trace amounts of gas that are needed for electrically stimulated luminescence.查询，开始与盖斯勒管继续为更好的吸尘器生产。最著名的是真空管用于科学研究的威廉克鲁克斯。管子被疏散的高效汞真空泵由赫尔曼注。所进行的研究克鲁克斯和其他人，最终导致了电子的发现在1897个由J .J .汤姆森。但克鲁克斯管，被称为小，产生的光由于真空它是太好，因此缺乏微量的气体所需要的电激发光。 3.1.2 Early Discharge LampsWhile Becquerel was primarily interested in conducting scientific research into fluorescence, Thomas Edison briefly pursued fluorescent lighting for its commercial potential. He invented a fluorescent lamp in 1896 that used a coating of calcium tungstate as the fluorescing substance, excited by X-rays, but although it received a patent in 1907, it was not put into production. As with a few other attempts to use Geissler tubes for illumination, it had a short operating life, and given the success of the incandescent light, Edison had little reason to pursue an alternative means of electrical illumination. Nikola Tesla made similar experiments in the 1890s, devising high frequency powered fluorescent bulbs that gave a bright greenish light, but as with Edisons devices, no commercial success was achieved.而这些主要兴趣是开展科学研究为荧光，托马斯爱迪生简单地追求荧光照明的商业潜力。他发明了一种荧光灯1896，用于涂层的钨酸钙作为荧光物质，激发的X射线，但尽管它获得专利1907，它没有投入生产。与其他一些企图利用盖斯勒管的照明，它有一个短的寿命，并给出了成功的白炽灯，爱迪生没有理由追求另类手段电气照明。尼古拉泰斯拉类似的实验在1890年代，设计高频供电的荧光灯泡，给一个明亮的绿色的光，但与爱迪生的设备，没有商业成功实现了。 Although Edison lost interest in fluorescent lighting, one of his former employees was able to create a gas-based lamp that achieved a measure of commercial success. In 1895 Daniel McFarlan Moore demonstrated lamps 2 to 3 meters (6.6 to 9.8 ft) in length that used carbon dioxide or nitrogen to emit white or pink light, respectively. As with future fluorescent lamps, they were considerably more complicated than an incandescent bulb. 尽管爱迪生失去了兴趣，荧光灯照明，他的一位前雇员能够创造一个气灯，措施取得了商业上的成功。在1895丹尼尔麦克法兰穆尔显示灯2至3米（6.6至9.8英尺）长，使用二氧化碳或氮气发出白色或粉红色的光，分别。作为未来的荧光灯，他们是复杂得多比白炽灯泡。 After years of work, Moore was able to extend the operating life of the lamps by inventing an electromagnetically controlled valve that maintained a constant gas pressure within the tube. Although Moores lamp was complicated, expensive to install, and required very high voltages, it was considerably more efficient than incandescent lamps, and it produced a more natural light than incandescent lamps. From 1904 onwards Moores lighting system was installed in a number of stores and offices. Its success contributed to General Electrics motivation to improve the incandescent lamp, especially its filament. GEs efforts came to fruition with the invention of a tungsten-based filament. The extended lifespan of incandescent bulbs negated one of the key advantages of Moores lamp, but GE purchased the relevant patents in 1912. These patents and the inventive efforts that supported them were to be of considerable value when the firm took up fluorescent lighting more than two decades later.在多年的工作中，穆尔能够延长使用寿命的灯的发明一个电磁阀控制，保持恒定的管内气体压力。虽然穆尔的灯是复杂的，昂贵的安装，并要求很高的电压，这是相当多的效率比白炽灯，并产生了更多的自然光比白炽灯。从1904起，穆尔照明系统是安装在一些商店和办公室。它的成功有助于通用电气的动力提高白炽灯的灯丝，尤其。通用电气公司的努力终于取得了成果和发明的钨灯丝。寿命的延长白炽灯泡的否定的主要优势之一穆尔的灯，但谷歌购买相关专利1912。这些专利和发明的努力，支持他们进行具有相当的价值时，该公司花了二十多年后，荧光灯照明。 At about the same time that Moore was developing his lighting system, another American was creating a means of illumination that also can be seen as a precursor to the modern fluorescent lamp. This was the mercury-vapor lamp, invented by Peter Cooper Hewitt and patented in 1901 (US 682692) (Note: This patent number is universally misquoted as US889, 692). Hewitts lamp luminesced when an electric current was passed through mercury vapor at a low pressure. Unlike Moores lamps, Hewitts were manufactured in standardized sizes and operated at low voltages. The mercury-vapor lamp was superior to the incandescent lamps of the time in terms of energy efficiency, but the blue-green light it produced limited its applications. It was, however, used for photography and some industrial processes.大约在同一时间，穆尔发展了他的照明系统，另一个是创建一个照明手段，也可以看作是一个前体的现代荧光灯。这是水银灯，由彼得休伊特和专利在1901（682692）（注：这是引用作为us889专利号，692）。休伊特的灯luminesced当电流是通过在一个低气压汞蒸气。不同于穆尔的灯，休伊特的制造标准尺寸和操作在低电压。在水银灯比白炽灯的时间在能源效率，但蓝绿色的光线产生了有限的应用。它是，但是，用于摄影和一些工业过程。 Mercury vapor lamps continued to be developed at a slow pace, especially in Europe, and by the early 1930s they received limited use for large-scale illumination. Some of them employed fluorescent coatings, but these were primarily used for color correction and not for enhanced light output. Mercury vapor lamps also anticipated the fluorescent lamp in their incorporation of a ballast to maintain a constant current.汞蒸气灯继续发展以缓慢的步伐，特别是在欧洲，并由1930年代初，他们收到了有限的使用大型照明。他们中的一些人雇用荧光涂料，但这些主要是用于颜色校正和增强的光输出。汞蒸气灯荧光灯也预计在其纳入一个镇流器保持一个恒定电流。 Cooper-Hewitt had not been the first to use mercury vapor for illumination, as earlier efforts had been mounted by Way, Rapieff, Arons, and Bastian and Salisbury. Of particular importance was the mercury vapor lamp invented by Kch in Germany. This lamp used quartz in place of glass to allow higher operating temperatures, and hence greater efficiency. Although its light output relative to electrical consumption was better than other sources of light, the light it produced was similar to that of the Cooper-Hewitt lamp in that it lacked the red portion of the spectrum, making it unsuitable for ordinary lighting.休伊特不首先使用汞蒸气的照明，如先前的努力已安装的方式，rapieff，阿龙斯，和巴斯和索尔兹伯里。尤其重要的是汞蒸气灯的发明的在德国。这种灯用石英玻璃所允许更高的运行温度，从而提高效率。虽然它的光输出相对于电力消费比其他来源的光，光产生相似，特灯，它缺乏红色部分的频谱，使它不适合普通照明。 3.1.3 Neon LampsThe next step in gas-based lighting took advantage of the luminescent qualities of neon, an inert gas that had been discovered in 1898 by isolation from the atmosphere. Neon glowed a brilliant red when used in Geissler tubes. By 1910, Georges Claude, a Frenchman who had developed a technology and a successful business for air liquefaction, was obtaining enough neon as a byproduct to support a neon lighting industry. While neon lighting was used around 1930 in France for general illumination, it was no more energy-efficient than conventional incandescent lighting. Neon tube lighting, which also includes the use of argon and mercury vapor as alternate gases, came to be used primarily for eye-catching signs and advertisements. Neon lighting was relevant to the development of fluorescent lighting, however, as Claudes improved electrode (patented in 1915) overcame sputtering, a major source of electrode degradation. Sputtering occurred when ionized particles struck an electrode and tore off bits of metal. Although Claudes invention required electrodes with a lot of surface area, it showed that a major impediment to gas-based lighting could be overcome.下一步气照明利用发光的霓虹灯，一种惰性气体，被发现在1898孤立从大气。霓虹灯发出耀眼的红色当用于盖斯勒管。1910年底，乔治斯克劳德，一个法国人谁制定了一个技术和商业上的成功，为液化空气，是获得足够的霓虹灯作为一个副产品支持霓虹灯照明产业。当霓虹灯照明用左右1930在法国的普通照明，它不再是比传统的白炽灯照明节能。霓虹光管，其中也包括使用氩气和水银蒸气作为替代气体，后来被主要用于醒目的标志和广告。霓虹灯照明的发展有关的荧光灯照明，然而，作为克劳德的改进电极（专利1915）克服了“溅射”，一个主要来源，电极降解。溅射时发生电离粒子击中一个电极和撕下小块金属。虽然克劳德的发明所需的电极具有很大的表面积，这表明，一个主要的障碍是可以克服气照明。 The development of the neon light also was significant for the last key element of the fluorescent lamp, its fluorescent coating. In 1926 Jacques Risler received a French patent for the application of fluorescent coatings to neon light tubes. The main use of these lamps, which can be considered the first commercially successful fluorescents, was for advertising, not general illumination. This, however, was not the first use of fluorescent coatings. As has been noted above, Edison used calcium tungstate for his unsuccessful lamp. Other efforts had been mounted, but all were plagued by low efficiency and various technical problems. Of particular importance was the invention in 1927 of a low-voltage “metal vapor lamp” by Friedrich Meyer, Hans-Joachim Spanner, and Edmund Germer, who were employees of a German firm in Berlin. A German