中国绘画鉴赏-杨新

PAGE1ApproachestoChinesePaintingPARTIYangXinChinesepaintingcan,betracedbacktodecorationsonpotteryandonthefloorsofthatchedhutsintheNeolithicperiod.早在原始社会的新石器时代，中国绘画就出现在陶器和房屋的地面上。IntheEasternZhoudynasty,2500yearsago,theuseofbrushandinkhadalreadydevelopedtosuchapointthatthebasicbrush-madeshapeshavechangedlittlesincethen.2500年前的东周时期，工具主要用毛笔和墨，以线描方式造型。Chineseartists,philosophers,andcriticshaveconstantlydiscussedtheroleandqualitiesofpaintingthroughoutitslongandcomplexhistory.中国艺术家们、哲学家们和评论家们在整个漫长而复杂的历史背景下不断地探索绘画所扮演的角色和所能表现的气质。Tothisday,theworkofmostChinesearthistoriansreflectsthedistinctiveinteractionbetweenthepaintingtradition,ontheonehand,andphilosophy,poetry,calligraphy,andotherculturalforms,ontheother.直到今天，大多数中国艺术历史研究家才发现传统绘画之间有种独特性，它们互相影响着对方，这种影响一方面体现在哲学、诗歌、书法上，还体现在其它的一些文化领域中。WhatmakesChinesepaintingsuchanexquisiteflowerinthegardenofChinesecivilizationisthewaytheartsofthebrushpainting,calligraphy,andpoetrytogetherwiththerelatedartofsealengraving,interact,sometimesdirectly,sometimesindirectly,inproducingsomanyofthemasterpieces.是什么使得中国绘画有了这么多的杰作？中国文化里的水墨画、书法和诗歌与印章雕刻之间有着密切的联系，这种联系有直接的，也有间接地。AcomplexyetimportantdistinctionforChinesescholarsastheyhaveexaminedtheirpaintingtraditionisbetweenthedetailedandtechnicallyproficientrepresentationofasceneorobjectandtherepresentationofitsobjectiveandsubjectivelikeness.中国学者发现了一个复杂而又重要的区别，绘画传统中通常在刻画细节和对场景或物体的表现上显得技法娴熟，还有就是体现在对客观肖像和主观肖像的表达上。Theformerapproachisassociatedlargelywithcourtpainters,whosefacilitywiththebrushandwhosenaturalisticstyleculminatedinmanyfineworks,particularlyduringtheTang(618—907)andSong(960—1279)dynasties;thelatterapproachisassociatedlargelywiththeliterati-artistswhoseworksstartedtoappearinsignificantnumbersbytheearlySong.宫廷画家更多地使用前一种方法，他们用的工具刷和自然风格在许多作品中堪称顶峰之作，尤其是在唐代（618—907）和宋代（960—1279）；后一种方法更多地被文人画家们所使用，早期的歌曲中就有所体现。Thecontrastisnotatotalone.这个对比并不完整。Still，thedepictionofpartlyimaginedlikenesses,notstrictlyrealisticones,isattheheartofwhatmostChinesescholarsseeasdistinctiveabouttheChinesepaintingtradition.虽然肖像联想这一部分的描绘是不受严格的现实因素控制的，但是它是多数中国学者研究中国绘画独特性的一个核心部分。"Oneshouldlearnfromnatureandpainttheimageinone'smind,"asthepainterZhangZaowroteintheeighthcentury.如唐代张璪（约活耀于西元8世纪前半叶）提出的“外师造化，中得心源”。古语：Oneshouldlearnfromnatureandpainttheimageinone'smind外师造化，中得心源IntheearlyperiodsinthedevelopmentofChinesepainting,aprominentartisticgoalwastherealisticrepresentationofthesubjectmatter.中国绘画早期阶段，绘画形式基本定型，努力追求准确真实表现客观物象成了一个重要的目标。HanFei(280—233B.C），athinkeroftheWarringStatesperiod,arguedthattheeasiestsubjectstopaintwereghostsanddevils;themostdifficult,dogs,horses,andotherrealthings.Why?Becausepeoplearefamiliarwithdogs,andhorses,butnobodyhaseverseenaghostoradevil,sotheywillnotknowwhetheranexactlikenesshasbeenachieved.韩非（约前280—前233年）层提出：“画鬼魅易，画犬马难。”他说：“夫犬焉，人之所也，旦暮罄于前，不可类之，故难。鬼魅，无形者，不罄于前，故易之也。”FromthepaintedpotteryofNeolithictimestothesilkpaintingsoftheWarringStates(476—221B.C.)andWesternHan(206B.C—A.D.9)periods,therewasadevelopingmaturityinstyle,withsuccessivepainterstryingtocreaterealisticlikenessesindiverseways.从新石器时代彩陶上的图案花纹，到战国（前476—前221年）、西汉（前206—25年）的帛画，可以看到中国绘画的表现形式，由探索到定型的发展过程。MuralsinearlytombsandintheDunhuangcaves,paintedduringtheTangdynasty,attesttotheirgreataccomplishments.早期的大型墓室壁画和敦煌石窟壁画就是最好的证明。古语：1、theeasiestsubjectstopaintwereghosts（鬼）anddevils（魔鬼）;themostdifficult,dogs,horses,andotherrealthings画鬼魅易，画犬马难。2、Why?Becausepeoplearefamiliar（熟悉的）withdogs,andhorses,butnobodyhaseverseenaghostoradevil,sotheywillnotknowwhetheranexact（确切的；精确的）likenesshasbeenachieved.夫犬焉，人之所也，旦暮罄于前，不可类之，故难。鬼魅，无形者，不罄于前，故易之也。Inlinewiththisapproach,XieHe,anartcriticandpainteroftheSouthernQi(479--502),arguedthatthereare"sixprinciplesofpainting,"oneofwhichis"fidelitytotheobjectinportrayingforms."南齐（479—502年）谢赫在总结绘画“六法”时指出其三是“应物象形”，其四是“随类赋彩”。ZhangYanyuan,anarthistorianoftheTangdynasty,agreed."Thesubjectmatter,"hesaid,"mustbepaintedtoitsexactlikeness."唐代的张彦远仍坚持“象物必以形似”。Butothercritics,evenearlyon,believedthatpaintingsneednotshouldnotbejudgedsolelybyastandardofobjectiverealism.中国美学理论家们，很早就意识到，绘画既然不能纯客观的表现对象。Goodpaintings,theysaid,achievetheunityoftheobjectiveandthesubjective,showingboththeimageasitexistsinrealityandtheimageinthepainter'smind.他们说一幅好的绘画作品，不能以纯客观的标准去品评它，从而提出了主客观统一为绘画的最高境界。古语：1、fidelity（精确）totheobjectinportraying（描绘的）forms应物象形2、mustbepaintedtoitsexactlikeness象物必以形似Hereweseetheemergenceofxieyi,or"sketchingtheidea."这里我们提到的“写意”，或者说是“大致想法”。This,morethanrealisticdepiction,iswhatmanycriticshaveconsideredtobetrulyimportantinpainting.这种超写实的手法被许多评论家认为是绘画中不可或缺的一个重要部分。Deyi,"gettingtheidea"oftheimageintheartist'smind,becomesthechiefpointtograspwhenlookingatapainting.“得意”，艺术家们脑海里“蹦出的想法”，在他们赏画时领会其中所要表达的主要观点。Theviewerhastoseebeyondtheimagetotheimpliedmeaning.观者需看透画外之意。Onlyby"comprehendingtheidea,"orhuiyi,canoneappreciatethebestpaintingsintheChinesearttradition.只有通过“领会想法”，或者说“会意”，才能对中国绘画的佳作进行欣赏。Artiststakingthisapproachmayhighlightcertainareasandleavelargeareasblank,exceptforcertaindetailsrelatedtothetheme.艺术家们把与某些细节相关的主题留了下来，而其余部分大面积的空白，运用这种方法更能突出想要表达的这一部分。Thespacesofvarioussizesandshapesformapatterninthemselves,drawingattentiontothemainsubjectmatterwhileprovidingtheviewerwithroomtoimagineandwanderin.空间中大小不同的形状组成了图案，值得引起注意的是，它给予欣赏者想象和徘徊的空间。Realityisimplied,notnecessarilyrenderedwithscrupulousaccuracy.内容是含蓄的，不用某个具体形态的物体去表达这种含蓄。Amoonlitsceneoutdoorsandalamplitsceneindoorsmaybepaintedlikethesamesceneindaylight,withonlyamoonintheskyorabrightlamptosignalnighttime.描绘月光下的景色，和灯光下的室内环境，就和白天时所见没有区别，只是天空中多了一轮明月，室内多了一支蜡烛或其它灯具而已。InTheNightRevelsofHanXitiai,ascrollpaintingbyGuHongzhongoftheFiveDynastiesperiod(907-960),burningcandlesshowthatthesceneissetatnight(seefig.103).例如，五代（907—960）顾红忠的《韩熙载夜宴图》就是描绘烛光下室内活动的情景。Anotherexampleofthiswidespreadapproachtorealityrelatestothedepictionofbuildings.又如，在描写建筑物方面。Chinesepainterstendtopresentbuildingsasseenstraightonorfromslightlyabove,seldomasseenfrombelow.中国画家从来都是采取平视或稍微俯视的角度去表现，而很少从仰视的角度去描绘。LiCheng,anotherartistoftheFiveDynastiesperiod,oncetriedtopaintpavilions,pagodas,andotherstructuresatophillsexactlyastheyappearedtohimfrombelow;thatis,hedidnotpaintthetilesontheroofs,justthewoodworkandframebelowtheeaves.五代时画家李成在描绘亭馆楼塔时，曾经只画屋檐的下部，而不画上面的瓦屋，以表现视觉的真实。HisexperimentwascriticizedbyShenKuo,afamousSongdynastyscholar,whosaidthatLididnotunderstandhowto"perceivesmallnessfromlargeness."但他的这种实验，被学者沈括批评为不懂“以大观小”的道理。InsucceedingdynastiesnoartisteveragaintookLi`sapproach.后来再也没人敢坐这样的试验了。古语：perceive（察觉；感知；意识到）smallnessfromlargeness以大观小NeitherShennorotherChinesecriticshavearguedthatsuchworksdistortreality,however.然而不论是沈括或是其它的中国评论家都要求绘画必须真实。Theoppositeisthecase.不是视觉的真实，也不是客观物象的真实。Realisticcopyingcannevershowtheinnatemeaningortruenatureofasubject,theywouldsay.而是一种所谓本质的真实。Onlywithimaginativerepresentationcanthedepthsofrealitybedepicted.只有靠不断地想象才能表现出这种真实。BytheendoftheTangdynastyinthetenthcentury,thisapproachtopaintingbegantofinditsgreatformsofexpression.到了十世纪的唐代，这种绘画形式才找到了合适的表达方式。WorksexecutedbycourtpaintersintothetenthcenturybeforetheestablishmentoftheSongdynastyprominentlyfeaturedhumanfigures,theuseoflinestodefineforms,richandvariedcoloring,andrealisticrepresentationofthesubjectmatter.十世纪宋代建立之前，宫廷画主要的特点是突出人物，用线和丰富多彩的颜色来表现主体部分。Thisapproachfitwellwiththesocialandculturalfunctionsthatthepaintingsweredesignedtofulfill.这种表现手法能很好的适应当时社会和文化的功能需求，这种需求则通过设计来实现。DuringtheQin(221-206B.C）andHan(206B.C.-A.D.220)dynasties,forexample,thegovernmentusedportraitstopublicizeandeulogizeloyalministersandmartyrsandtodenouncetraitors.秦（公元221—206）、汉（公元206—220）时代人物画被政府机构广泛用作宣传工具，以表彰忠诚烈士，批判乱臣贼子。LaterXieHeevenremarked,"Allpaintingsstandforpoeticjustice;lessonsabouttheriseandfallofministersoverthecourseofonethousandyearscanbedrawnfrompaintings."谢赫则明确提出：“图绘者，莫不明劝解，著升沉，千载寂寥，披图可鉴。”古语：Allpaintingsstandforpoetic（充满诗意的；富有想象力的）justice（审判）;lessonsabouttheriseandfallofministers（部长）overthecourseofonethousandyearscanbedrawnfrompaintings.图绘者，莫不明劝解，著升沉，千载寂寥，披图可鉴。ScholarsandofficialsoftheTangdynastywentastepfurtherandattemptedtobringpaintingintolinewithConfucianideology.唐代士大夫们试图把绘画创作纳入儒家思想体系。InLidaiminghuaji(Recordoffamouspaintingsofsuccessivedynasties),ZhangYanyuanarguedthatthe"artofpaintingexiststoenlightenethics,improvehumanrelationships,divinethechangesofnature,andexplorehiddentruths.ItfunctionsliketheSix[Confucian]Classicsandworksregardlessofthechangingseasons."《历代名画记》（记载历代名画的）中张彦远说过：“夫画者，成教化，助人伦，穷神变，侧幽微，与六籍同功，四时并运。”六籍，是指儒家的六种经典著作：《诗》、《书》、《礼》、《乐》、《易》、《春秋》。ThecataloguerofthecourtcollectionofpaintingsentitledXuanhehuapu,compiledattheendoftheNorthernSong(960--1127),attemptedtodefinethesocialfunctionoffigurepainting,evenarguingthatlandscapepainting,bud-and-flowerpainting,andanimalpaintingshouldfulfillasimilarethicalfunction.在北宋官修的《宣和画谱》一书中，功能的伦理，道德政治的宣传的要求更加得到强化，不但对人物要求如此，而且对山水、花鸟画和动物画亦是如此。古语：artofpaintingexiststoenlighten（启发；教育；教导）ethics（伦理；道德学；规矩）,improvehumanrelationships,divine（神的；神性的；天赐的）thechangesofnature,andexplorehiddentruths.ItfunctionsliketheSix[Confucian]Classicsandworksregardlessofthechangingseasons.夫画者，成教化，助人伦，穷神变，侧幽微，与六籍同功，四时并运。IntheXuanhehuapu,paintingsweredividedintotencategoriesaccordingtosubject:religiousthemes,figures,palacebuildings,foreignpeople,dragonsandfish,landscapes,animals,birdsandflowers,bamboo,andvegetablesandfruit.《宣和画谱》将绘画分类为十门，依次为道释、人物、宫室、番族、龙鱼、蓄兽、花鸟、墨竹、蔬果。ThesecategoriescarefullyreflectedtheofficialConfucianvaluesystemofthetime.我们可以清楚的看到，这个次序的先后排列，是深受儒家理论影响的。Landscapepaintings,forexample,wereprizedfortheirportrayaloftheFiveSacredMountainsandtheFourGreatRivers—placesofimperialsignificance.山水画的存在价值是因为能描绘“五狱”、“四渎”。Themeritofbirdsandflowersinitiallylayintheir"metaphoricalandallegoricalmeaning,"whilethatofvegetablesandfruitlayintheiruse"assacrificestodeities."谈到花鸟画则说：“诗人取之，为此兴讽喻”，谈到瓜果则说：“可修之于扁豆，荐之于神明”。Inshort,paintingswerejudgedlargelyintermsofhourwelltheirsubjectmatterservedthegods,theBuddha,sages,andemperors.总之，通篇论述离不开为神佛、圣贤和皇帝所用和服务。古语：1、metaphorical（用隐喻的；比喻的）andallegorical（寓意的）meaning诗人取之，为此兴讽喻。2、assacrifices（牺牲）todeities（神）可修之于扁豆，荐之于神明。ThecompileroftheXuanbehuapucertainlyknewthatbirdsandbamboowerenotdirectlyconnectedtohumanaffairs,buttheyhadtobemademetaphoricallyrelevantiftheyweretosymbolizemoralandethicalvalues.《宣和画谱》的作者清楚地知道，这些鸟和竹“不预乎人事”，而要赋予它以伦理道德意义。Thus,pinetrees,bamboo,plumblossoms,chrysanthemums,gulls,andducksbecamesymbolsofhermitsormenofnoblecharacter;peoniesandpeacocksbecamesymbolsofwealthandrank;willowtrees,symbolsofamoroussentiments;andtallpinetreesandancientcypresses,symbolsofconstancyanduprightness.因此，松树、竹子、梅花、菊花、海鸥和鸭子，比喻高人逸士；牡丹和孔雀则比拟成表现富贵；乔松和古柏象征坚贞磊落。Inthisway,bird-and-flowerpaintingscouldserveaninstructionalpurpose.用这种手法，花鸟画可以起到教化作用。BytheendoftheTangandduringtheFiveDynasties,beforetheXuanhehuapuwaswritten,landscapepaintingandbird-and-flowerpaintingonsilkachievedmaturity,intheprocesschangingthetraditional,simplisticuseofsketchedlinestodefineforms.至唐末五代，《宣和画谱》撰写之前，山水画和花鸟画成为在绢素上单幅创作的独立画科，而趋于成熟，它的成熟打破了古老的单纯的线描勾勒的表现形式。Aslandscapescametoconveytranquillityorpoeticmelancholyandrefinement,thetendencytouselesscolororevenjustmaterandinkbecameprevalent.山水追求宁静或萧条淡泊的诗意，使绘画中色彩逐渐减弱以致走向纯用水墨。Paintersalsoincreasinglyusedscrollsasamedium.画家们也越来越多地使用起卷轴这一形式。InartcirclesinChinaitisbelievedthatWuDaozi(activeca.710-760)markedthepeakofcourtpainting.Unfortunately,noneofhisworkshavesurvived,butsomecopiesaresaidtobebasedonhisoriginaldrawings(seefig.68).中国艺术界认为吴道子（约公元710—760）宫廷绘画的最高峰。不幸的是，他的大部分作品没有能够留下来，但这一说法是依据他的图纸来的（见图68）。Acoupleofcenturieslater,intheNorthernSongperiod,cametheriseoftheliteratus-artist,whoseinfluenceonthedevelopmentofChinesepaintingwasformidable.几世纪后，北宋时期，文人画家的兴起，对中国绘画发展产生了巨大的影响。Theliterati-artistswerewelltrainedinpoetryandcalligraphy.文人画家擅长诗歌和书法。Partlytodistinguishthemselvesfromprofessionalpainters,theyoftenlookedatpaintingintermsofthosearts,adoptingmanyoftheaestheticconceptionssetforthinErshisishipira(Thetwenty-fouraspectsofpoetry)bySikongTuoftheTangdynasty,amilestoneinthehistoryofpoetrycriticism.他们一部分使自己有别于专业绘画家，他们通常用这种艺术理念去看画，用不同的审美理念去品评唐代司空图的《二十四诗品》，这是一部影响很深远的品评诗歌的著作。Toelucidatesuchnotionsasvigor,thinness,primitivesimplicity,elegance,naturalness,andimplicitness,SikongTudescribednaturalsettingsappropriatetoeach.它主要阐述的是“雄浑”、“冲淡”、“高古”、“典雅”、“自然”和“含蓄”，司空图通过一幅幅对自然风景的描绘去说明这些概念。Elegance,forinstance,couldbeexpressedbydepictingsceneswith"gentlemenlisteningtothefallingraininathatchedcottagewhiledrinkingfromajadepot;seatedgentlemenflankedbytallbamboogroves;orfloatingwhitecloudsandafewbirdschasingeachotherinaskyclearingafterrain."比如，用“玉壶买春，赏雨茅屋。座中佳士，左右修竹。白云初晴，幽鸟相逐。眠琴绿荫，上有飞瀑”来说明典雅。古语：gentlemenlisteningtothefallingraininathatchedcottagewhiledrinkingfromajadepot;seatedgentlemenflankedbytallbamboogroves;orfloatingwhitecloudsandafewbirdschasingeachotherinaskyclearingafterrain.玉壶买春，赏雨茅屋。座中佳士，左右修竹。白云初晴，幽鸟相逐。眠琴绿荫，上有飞瀑。Anothertheoryofpoetrythatprovedhighlyinfluentialamongliterati-paintersandartcriticswassetforthbyMeiYaochen,aSongpoetwhosoughttoachieve"depthandprimitivesimplicity"inhisworks.文人画家和艺术评论家中，梅尧臣的另一种诗歌理论被证实颇有影响力，他是宋代诗人，作品追求“深远古淡”。Onceheremarkedthatpoems"mustbeabletoportrayhard-to-catchscenesasiftheyleapupbeforetheeyes,andimplymeaningbetweenthelines.Amasterpieceissuperioreventothis."他评论诗时曾提出：“必能状难写之景如在目前，含不尽之意见于言外，然后为之。”By"meaningbetweenthelines"hereferredtosomethingtheauthorhadinmindandthereadercouldperceiveonlybyintuition,thatis,ameaningthatcouldbeapprehendedbutnotexpressed.他解释“言外之意”说：“作者得于心，览者会以意，殆难指陈以言也。”Theliterati-artistssawtheapplicabilityofthisideatopainting.文人画家看到了这种想法在绘画中的适用性。古语：1、mustbeabletoportrayhard-to-catchscenesasiftheyleapupbeforetheeyes,andimplymeaningbetweenthelines.Amasterpieceissuperioreventothis.必能状难写之景如在目前，含不尽之意见于言外，然后为之。2、somethingtheauthorhadinmindandthereadercouldperceiveonlybyintuition,thatis,ameaningthatcouldbeapprehendedbutnotexpressed.作者得于心，览者会以意，殆难指陈以言也。Anotheraspectoftheshiftfromcourtpaintingtoliteratipaintingwasthegrowingemphasisonpaintingasanenjoyableactivity,intendedtopleaseoneselfandone'sfriends.另一个方面的转变就是宫廷画到文人画更注重以愉悦为主，有意的请自己和自己的朋友加入。SuShi,apoet,calligrapher,andpainteroftheSongdynasty,wasoneadvocateofenjoyment.苏轼是宋代的书法家和画家，他提倡快乐。Heoncewroteapoemtoafriendthatread:"laskedwhyyoupaintedaportraitofme;yousaidyouareaportraitisttoamuseyourself."他曾经在写给朋友的一首诗中说道：“问君何若写我真，君言好之聊自适”,NiZan,oneoftheFourGreatMastersofYuan-dynastypainting,suggestedthatthepursuitofenjoymentgainedinimportanceasthesearchforthe"exactlikeness"grewmoredesultory.倪瓒，元代绘画四大家之一认为“仆之所谓画者，不过逸笔草草，不求形似，聊以自娱耳。”ThisviewwascarriedforwardbyDongQichang,thegreatpainterandarthistorianofthelateMingdynasty,whoexplicitly-advocated"paintingforfun"and"thepaintingoffun."这个观点被晚明时期的著名画家和艺术史学家董其昌推向极致，他明确地出“以画为乐”、“寄乐于画”的口号。ThroughouttheYuan（1271-1368),Ming(1368—1644）,andQing(1644——1911）dynasties,particularlytowardthecloseofeach,whengovernmentpowerwanedandcorruptiongrewrife,theideaofusingpaintingsto"enlightenethicsandimprovehumanrelationships"wasseldommentionedbyliterati-artists.纵观元明清三代，特别是在两个朝代的过渡时期，政府的力量衰退，贪污腐化盛行的时候，绘画的“成教化，助人伦”的作用则很少被士大夫们所涉及了。古语：1、laskedwhyyoupaintedaportraitofme;yousaidyouareaportraitisttoamuseyourself.问君何若写我真，君言好之聊自适。2、"paintingforfun"and"thepaintingoffun."以画为乐、寄乐于画。3、enlightenethicsandimprovehumanrelationships.成教化，助人伦。ThepracticeofannotatingapaintingwithapoemevidentlyoriginatedamongtheliteratioftheSongperiod.直接把诗歌书写在绘画作品上，亦出现于宋代文人学者们。TheTangpoetDuFucomposedmanypoemsaboutpaintings,someofwhichwerecommentsonspecificworks.Whetheranyofhispoemswerewrittendirectlyonwallpaintingsorscrollsisunknown.唐朝诗人杜甫有许多观赏绘画时的诗歌创作，但杜甫是否真的直接把诗题写在壁画或绢素画上还是有待研究的问题。AnumberofSongpoetscomposedpoemsaboutpaintings,however,andsomeofthesearefoundwrittenonthemountingsofhandscrolls.宋代诗人的题画诗作大大超过了唐人，有的可能是题在手卷后的尾纸上。TheearliestknownpiecesextanttodayareattributedtoEmperorHuizong(r.1101--1125)，acelebratedpainterinhisownright(see;forinstance,fig.113);amongtheseistheearliestexistingexampleofapaintinginscribedwithapoemcomposedbytheartisthimself.已知最早把诗题在画中的是皇帝宋徽宗（公元1101—1125），也是一名非常有名的画家。（图113）这些是现存最早的将自己的诗题于画面中的实例。Laterpaintersfollowedsuit;thepracticebecamepopularduringtheYuandynastyandcommonduringtheMingandQingdynasties,whenpaintingswerelikelytobearpoetryorotherinscriptions.之后的画家纷纷追随。元代的画家将自己的诗作提于画上以成为风气，至明清时代，几乎无书不题了。ThatChinesecharactersdevelopedfrompictographsledtoabeliefthatpaintingandcalligraphyhadacommonorigin.中国的汉字起源于象形导致“书画同源”成为了一种普遍的认识。Recentarchaeologicalfindingshaveestablishedthatinfactpaintingappearedbeforetheinventionofscript.而从现今的考古学发现来看，绘画的出现早于文字。Itremainstrue,however,thatthereisacloseconnectionbetweencalligraphyandpainting:bothinvolvebrushwork,andinscribingapaintingrequiresknowinghowtowritebeautifulscript.虽然如此，但是书法和绘画之间还是存在十分密切的联系:它们都使用毛笔来创作，而且绘画时也需要了解怎样写一手漂亮的字。Overtime,literati,whowerewellversedin（对……精通，擅长于……）calligraphy,employedintheirpaintingsbrushworktechniquesaffectedbytheircalligraphicstyle,andcametoseetheformandcontentoftheinscription（n.题词；铭文；刻印）asanintegralpart（主要的部分）ofthepainting.自从文人画兴起之后，由于文人们本身擅长书法，他们所用的绘画技术受书法风格的影响，从这点可以看出铭文的形式和内容也成了绘画不可或缺的一部分。Drawnto（吸引）theartofcalligraphy,theybegantopaycloseattentioninpaintingtotheaestheticappeal（审美情趣的）oflinesandtothedistinctivewaysofdoingbrushwork,insteadofjustemployinglinestocomposeforms.吸取了书法艺术，他们开始重视在绘画中运用既符合审美需求又赋有情趣的线条和独到的用笔方式，而不仅仅是用线组成某种形状。XieHe,inhisSixPrinciplesofpainting,introducedtermstoevaluatebrushwork.谢赫的“六法”中提出“骨法用笔”。IntheYuandynasty，ZhaoMengfu(1254--1322)inscribedapoemonapaintingofrocksandbamboothatconcludedwiththestatementthatcalligraphyandpaintingareidentical(seefig.173).在元代的时期，赵孟頫在石块上和竹简上题写了一首诗得出结论证明，书法和绘画有异曲同工之意。Laterartistsdidnottakethisviewbutinsteadcultivated（培养，发展出）adistinctivepersonalcalligraphicstylethatwasnaturallyreflectedintheirpaintings.后来艺术家并没有采用这一办法，而是把书法作为一种修炼，自然地流露于画中。ShenZhou(1427-1509),forexample,whomodeled（模仿）hiscalligraphyonHuangTingjian's,executedpaintingswiththeboldandvigorousbrushstrokescharacteristic（特性；特色）ofHuang'sscript（手迹；书写用的字母）(seefig.203).例如，沈周（1427—1509）他学习黄庭坚的书法，故他的绘画用笔雄浑劲键。OtherswhosepaintingstyleshowssimilaritieswiththeircalligraphicstyleareWenZhengming(1470--1559),ZhaoZhiqian(18291844),andWuChangshuo(18441927)(seefigs.204,282,284).其他的艺术家的绘画风格也表现出与他们书法风格相似之处，如文徵明，赵之谦，吴昌硕等。Theinscriptiononapaintingaccentuates（强调）andcomplements（补充）theimage.画面上的题诗，是画面内容的延伸和补充，但同时要求书写漂亮和具有个性。IntheSongandYuanperiods,paintingswereusuallyinscribed（v.题写；雕刻）aftercompletiontofillupanyremainingspace,butintheMingandQingperiods,placement（布置）oftheinscriptionwasconsideredwhenanartistplannedtheinitialcomposition．元、宋时期的题诗，往往是先画后写，在画面适当的空白处加题。明、清时期几乎不画不题，则在画面构思布局之时，就已经考虑到题诗的位置。Insomeworkstheinscribedpoemisessentialtocreatingtheperfectvisualeffect.一些作品中，题诗部分和绘画一起构成视觉效果。InBambooandRockbyZhengXie（16931766),forexample,thegraylinesandgradations（层次）ofthecalligraphylooklikethecontourlines（轮廓线）oftherock(seefig.262）.例如郑燮在《竹石图》中，用六分半的画体题写在山体上，造成一个灰面层次，像山石的纹理。InFishSwimmingbyLiFangying(16951755),thepoemhangsvertically（adv.垂直地）likeariverbank.在李方膺的《游鱼图》中，诗句从上而下排列于画面一侧，从视觉效果上给人以河岸或田埂的联想。Seals,whichtypicallyimprint（vt.加特征；刻上记号）charactersengraved（v.雕刻（engrave的过去式））inanancientcalligraphicstyle,likewise（adv.同样地；也）enhanceapainting.印章上刻印的典型特征是雕刻古老的书法样式，同时也增加了画面里的绘画效果。Thepracticeofaffixing（使……依附于）sealspossiblyoriginatedwithcollectorswhostampedtheirsealsoncollectionstodesignate（指定）ownership.印章大约起源于收藏家钤盖印记，他们把印章盖在收藏品上是为了指定作品版权。AccordingtotheXuandehuapu,paintingsexecutedbeforetheTangdynastywerenotstamped.通过《宣德画谱》可以看出，唐代以前的画是没有印记的。TheTangemperorTaizonginaugurated（使正式就任）thepracticebyhavinghissealsappliedtopaintingsintheimperialhousehold（皇室家族）.始作俑者是唐太宗李世民，在内府收藏绘画上印印章。）DuringtheNorthernSong,paintersbegantostamptheirownworks,oftentowardagainst（防止）forgery（伪造品）.而在北宋期间，画家们才开始在自己的作品上加盖印章，通常是为了防止他人伪造。）Usingseals,howeverpractical,addedaestheticappealtothepaintings,asliterati-paintersrealized.除了印章的实际作用外，文人画家们终于发现在画面上加盖印章，另外增添了一种情趣和别样的美。Thescarlet（深红色的）stampcouldenliven（使活跃，使生气）apictureotherwisedullincolor,andthechoiceofsealindicatedcertaininterestsandvaluesofthepainter,oftenwithsubtlecultural,personal,orpoliticalimplications.在画面上印上鲜红的印泥，为原本多为水墨或淡著色的绘画作品平添了几分颜色效果。此外，印章的文字内容，可以表达画家的思想情