句法学复习要点及习题

句法学复习要点及习题Inlinguistics,thewordSYNTAXreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinaLanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.SincesentenceisusuallyregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofaLanguage,syntaxhaslongbeenthecenterofgrammaticalstudy.Insomelanguages,grammaticalgenderhadlittletodowiththebiologicalsex.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.5.Theformsofwordscanberestrictedbygrammaticalcategoriesthroughconcordoragreementandthroughgovernment.concord(grammar)agreementbetweenwordsingender,number,etc,(e.g.betweenaverbandapluralnounasitssubject)TheideaofgovernmentisnecessaryinlanguageslikeLatinandGermantoaccountforthewayinwhichcertainprepositionsandverbsdeterminethecaseofnouns.Descriptive----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Prescriptive----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)TheSTRUCTURALapproachtotheanalysisofLanguagewasstartedbytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureinthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Saussurebelievesthat,languageisasystemofsigns,eachofwhichconsistsoftwoparts:signified(concept)andsignifier(soundimage).Saussureidentifiedtwoprincipaltypesofrelations:Syntagmaticrelationsandparadigmaticrelations.TheSyntagmaticrelation(结构关系,组合关系)istherelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.TheSTRUCTURALapproachtotheanalysisofLanguagewasstartedbytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureinthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Therearesyntacticconditionsandsemanticconditionsthewordsmustmeet.4-2-aTheboykickedtheball.4-2-b*Boytheballkickedthe.4-2-c*Theballkickedtheboy.Wordsinand4-2-bviolatesyntacticrulesandin4-2-cviolatesemanticconditions.TheSyntagmaticrelation(结构关系,组合关系)istherelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.Theparadigmaticrelation(聚合体关系)SaussureoriginallycalledASSOCIATIVE,isarelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinstructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.ThesequencewhichasignformswiththoseinasyntagmaticrelationissometimescalledaSTRUCTURE.Tousethewordinamorerestrictedsense,andtheclassofsignswhichareinaparadigmaticrelationaresometimescalledaSYSTEM.ThesyntagmaticrelationisnowadaysalsorefereedtoasHORIZONALRELATIONorchainrelation.AndtheparadigmaticrelationisalsoknownastheVERTICALrelationorCHOICErelation.immediateconstituentanalysisThisnotion(immediateconstituent)wasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistLeonardBloomfield(Language,1933.)Thisconstructionmaybeasentence,maybeawordgroup,mayalsobeaword.Thelastlevelofconstituentsismorphemes,knownasultimateconstituents.In1957,theAmericanlinguistChomskyproposedthetransformational-generativegrammar(TG)(转换生成语法),thusprovidingamodelforthedescriptionofhumanlanguages.ThegoalofTGistofindoutasystemofrulestoaccountforthelinguisticcompetenceofnativespeakersofalanguagetoformgrammaticalsentences.Inhisaspectsofthetheoryofsyntax,Chomskysaysthatagenerativegrammarshouldconsistofthreecomponents:syntactic,phonological,andsemantic.theloveofGod,isaonlysurfacestructure.Thereareinfacttwodeepstructures:GodlovessomebodySomebodylovesGodCompetenceVsperformanceSurfaceStructureVsDeepStructurea.Theprofessor’sappointmentwasshocking.b.MaryandBillorJohnsentthegift.c.Thehorseisreadytoride.d.Oldmenandwomenarehardtolivewith.TheremayalsobeafunctionalanalysisintermsofTHEMEandRHEME.VilemMathesius:Inhisterminology,thefirsttermrefersto“thatwhichisknownoratleastobviousinthegivensituationandfromwhichthespeakerproceeds”,andthesecond“whatthespeakerstatesout,orinregardto,thestartingpointoftheutterance”(Danes1974).Thethemeisthestartingpointforthemessage;itisthegroundfromwhichtheclauseistakingoff.(Halliday1994:38)Markedthemevs.UnmarkedthemeMyson’sbicyclewasstolen.Helenwillalsogowithyou.ItischaracteristicofHalliday’stheorythatmoreattentionispaidtoparadigmaticrelationsthantoSyntagmaticrelations,whichisthemainconcernofChyomsky.Hallidayarguesthattherearethreegeneralfunctionsoflanguage:ideational(whichissubdividedintoexperientialandlogical),interpersonalandtextual.Ⅲ.Explainthefollowingterms,usingexamples.1.Syntax2.ICanalysisⅣ.Answerthefollowingquestions.1.Distinguishthetwopossiblemeaningsof“morebeautifulflowers”bymeansofICanalysis.答案1.Syntax:Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.2.ICanalysis:Immediateconstituentanalysis,ICanalysisforshort,referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents–wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.Ⅳ.(1)more|beautifulflowers(2)morebeautiful|flowers语义学复习要点及习题1.Thenamingtheory（命名说）isoneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Theconceptualistview（概念论）isoneconcerningmeaning.Accordingtothisview,thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.Behaviorism:Accordingtothisview,themeaningofalanguageformisthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.(Bloomfield1933:139)Contextualism（语境论）：isaviewconcerningmeaningwhichholdsthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context.Samereferencebutdifferentsense: e.g.VenusTheeveningstar west.(sunset) Themorningstar east.(sunrise)Sameobject(samereference)butdifferentsense(differentaspect);differentwaysofreferringtothesamething.Conceptualmeaningisalsocalled“denotative”（外延义）or“cognitive”meaning.Thisreferstothedefinitiongiveninthedictionary.Connotativemeaningmayvaryaccordingtoculture,historicalperiodandtheexperienceoftheindividual,andthusareindeterminateandopen-ended.Affectivemeaningindicatesthespeaker’sattitudetowardsthepersonorthinginquestion.Homonymyreferstocaseswherelexemeswiththesamephonologicalormorphologicalshapehavedifferentmeanings.Accordingtothesemanticrelationship,antonymscanbelooselydividedintothreecategories:1)Complementaryantonyms互补性反义Complementaryantonymsarealsocallednon-gradableantonyms.Theyarelexemesorexpressionswhosecrucialsemanticfeaturesaremutuallyexclusive.Thepositiveofonesuggeststhenegativeoftheother.male---female;married---single;alive---dead;2)Gradableantonyms(可分等级的反义词)Thereareoftenintermediateformbetweenthetwomembersofapairofantonyms.Soitisamatterofdegree.“old”and“young”3)Relationalantonyms（关系反义词）Theyarepairsoflexemesorexpressionswhosecrucialsemanticfeaturesdisplayareciprocal(相互的)relationship.husband---wifeMyonlylovesprungfrommyonlyhate!Tooearlyseenunknown,andknowntoolate.Antonymscanalsobeusedasarhetoricaldevicetomaketheexpressionsmorecontrastiveandimpressive.Toachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideastogether,toexpresseconomicallytheoppositeofaparticularthought.Meronymyisatermusedtodescribeapart-wholerelationshipbetweenlexicalitems.Hyponymyisusedtorefertoaspecific-generalsemanticrelationshipbetweenlexicalitems.RelationsbetweensentencesA.Entailment(蕴涵）B.Presupposition（前提，预设）C.Inconsistency（矛盾）D.Synonymy（同义）练习题：Whatarethethreekindsofantonymy?Accordingtothesemanticrelationship,antonymscanbelooselydividedintothreecategories:1)Complementaryantonyms互补性反义Complementaryantonymsarealsocallednon-gradableantonyms.Theyarelexemesorexpressionswhosecrucialsemanticfeaturesaremutuallyexclusive.Thepositiveofonesuggeststhenegativeoftheother.male---female2)Gradableantonyms(可分等级的反义词)Thereareoftenintermediateformbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.Forexample,“old”and“young”areimmediatelyrecognizedasantonyms,buttheystandfortwoextremes,betweenwhichthereexistintermediateformsrepresentingdifferentdegreesofbeingoldoryoung,suchas“middle-aged”,“mature”,“elderly3)Relationalantonyms（关系反义词）(成对的；相对相辅关系的；关系对立的反义词)（在意义上是相对称的，它们处于相互关系的对立面，又叫换位反义词。）Theyarepairsoflexemesorexpressionswhosecrucialsemanticfeaturesdisplayareciprocal(相互的)relationship.Onememberofthepairpresupposestheother.Ifwesay“AlendsmoneytoB”,itpresupposes“BborrowsmoneyfromA”

2.Howdowordsgetmeaning?Conventionality（MostEnglishwordsareconventional,arbitrarysymbols.Thereisnoconnectionbetweenthewordformanditsmeaning.）Motivation（SomeEnglishwordsaremotivatedsymbols.Thereissomeconnectionbetweenthewordformanditsmeaning.）语用学复习要点及习题Semantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).

Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration)Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.

Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Deixismeans“pointingvialanguage”.Anylinguisticformusedtodothis“pointing”iscalledadeicticexpression.ClassificationofdeixisConstatives(叙述句)----statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;

Performatives(施为句)----sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Locutionaryact:actofutteringwords,phrases,clauses;

Illocutionaryact:theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;

Perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfrosayingsomething,theconsequenceoftheutteranceCooperativeprinciple:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.fourmaximsundertheCooperativeprincipleThePolitenessPrincipleandthe4maximsofPP1.

Howdoesasentencemeaningdifferfromanutterancemeaning?Asentencemeaningisof-tenconsideredastheintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.Itisabstractandindependentofcontext.Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Theutterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Forexample,“Thereisadogatthedoor”.Thespeakercouldutteritasamatter-of-factstatement,tellingthehearerthatthedogisatthedoor.Thespeakercoulduseitasawarning,askingthehearernottoapproachthedoor.Thereareotherpossibilities,too.So,theunderstandingoftheutterancemeaningof“Thereisadogatthedoor”dependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.

语言的变化复习要点及习题Itisestimatedthatthereareabout5000languagesallovertheworld,whichcanbegroupedintoabout300languagefamilies,suchasSino-TibetanFamily,Indo-EuropeanFamily,AustronesianFamily,AltaicFamily,andsoon.Inthefifthcentury,theGermanicinvadersconqueredandoccupiedtheeasternpartoftheBritishisland.TheCelticlanguageoriginallyspokeninthatareawasreplacedbytheWestGermanicdialectsspokenbytheinvaders.MiddleEnglishischaracterizedbythestronginfluenceofFrenchfollowingtheNormanConquestin1066.ThankstotheRenaissance(early14thC-1650),greatnumbersofLatinandGreekwordswereaddedtoEnglish.Semanticchange

A.Wideningofmeaning

B.NarrowingofMeaning

C.MeaningshiftingCausesoflanguagechange问答题Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture1.Everylanguageispartofaculture.Peopleareidentifiedviatheiruseoflanguage.Inthissense,languageexpressesculturalreality.2.Languageembodiesculturalidentity.Itreinforcesandpreservesbeliefsandcustoms,andconditionstheirfuturecourse.Languageuseisheavilytintedwithitsculture.*Languageexpressesculturalreality.*Theculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.*Itislanguagethathasplayedamajorroleinsocializingthepeopleandinperpetuatingculture,especiallyinprintform.*Cultureaffectsitspeople’simaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.*Languageisnotonlyintrinsicallyrelatedtowhatthecultureisandwhatitwas,butalsorelatedtothecultureofimaginationgoverningpeople’sdecisionsaswellasactions.语言分析1Myonlylovesprungfrommyonlyhate!Tooearlyseenunknown,andknowntoolate.Antonymscanbeusedasarhetoricaldevicetomaketheexpressionsmorecontrastiveandimpressive.Toachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideastogether,toexpresseconomicallytheoppositeofaparticularthought2.a:Let’sgetthekidssomething.b:Okay,butIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.ItviolatesmannermaximofCP.Theconversationalimplicaturehereis:Idon’twantthechildrentoknowwearetalkingaboutice-cream.语言分析1.Insomelanguages,grammaticalgenderhadlittletodowiththebiologicalsex.Forexample,the“moon”inFrenchisgrammaticallyfeminine,whileinGermana“girl”isgrammaticallyneuter.Englishgendercontrastismostlyofthenaturalgenderkind,andisusuallyreflectedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns.Forexample,heformasculine,sheforfeminine,anditforneuter.2.InEnglish,thegenitivecasecanbemarkedbyinflection(’s)oraprepositionalphrase(…of..).Forexample,aboy’sshirt,Tom’spen,apictureofthegirl,amapofChina.(c.f.afriendofmymother’s;afriendofmine)3.Averbistoagreewiththesubjectinpersonandinnumber.InEnglish,thisruleonlyaffectstheverbaccordingtothenumberofthesubject.(e.g.Theboygoestoschool.Theboysgotoschool.)4.InEnglish,prepositionsandverbsrequireorrestrictparticularformsoftheparadigms(聚合体，词形变化)ofpronounsaccordingtothesyntacticrelationbetweenthem.(e.g.Imustlearnfromthem.Theypleasedmetheotherday.)5.Englishhastwoaspectswhichcombinefairlyfreelywithtenseandmood:the“perfect”andthe“progressive”.Theyalsocombinewithoneanother.(eg.Ihave/hadreadthebook.Iwill/wouldhavereadthebook.Iam/wasreadingthebook.Iwill/wouldbereadingthebook.Ihave/hadbeenreadingthebook.)6.4-2-aTheboykickedtheball.4-2-b*Boytheballkickedthe.4-2-c*Theballkickedtheboy.Wordsin4-2-aand4-2-bviolatessyntacticrules.7.Awordmaybeanalyzedintoitsimmediateconstituents:morphemes.eg.Lovely{love}{ly}talked{talk}{ed}8.a.Theprofessor’sappointmentwasshocking.b.MaryandBillorJohnsentthegift.c.Thehorseisreadytoride.d.Oldmenandwomenarehardtolivewith.以上句中的表层结构（词语和词序）相同，但语义却不同，既同一个表层结构，有两个深层结构。9.wordmeaningismoreoftendependentontheactualsituationinwhichawordisused.Example:John’sreallyquick.Johnisarunner.Theteachertoldajoke,andthenallthestudentsbutJohnlaughed.ThenJohnlaughed.Thenoneofthestudentssays:John’sreallyquick.(quickisusedironicallytomeantheoppositeslow).10.John(agent)hitBill(patient).vs.Bill(patient)washitbyJohn(agent).InEnglish,thesesemanticrolescorrespondtothenotionsofsubjectandobject.Butthingsarecomplicatedbythenotionsofdirectandindirectobject,activeandpassivevoice.11.Johnplaygolf”----grammaticallyincorrect;?“GolfplayedJohn”----logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.12.1)A:CanIborrowyourdictionary?B:Yean,it’sonthetable.Here,worditrefersbacktotheworddictionary.Thepreviousworddictionaryiscalledtheantecedent(先行语),andthesecondworditiscalledtheanaphor（回指语）oranaphoricexpression13.Constatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish14.Performatives:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction.Ido.InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.15.Themaximofquality质量准则Don’tsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Don’tsaythatforwhichyoulackevidence.2)Themaximofquantity数量准则Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.Don’tmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.3)Themaximofrelevance相关/关联准则Berelevant.4)Themaximofmanner方式准则a.Avoidobscurity/vaguenessofexpression.避免模糊b.Avoidambiguity.避免歧义c.Bebrief.简明d.Beorderly.有序(Note:1)--3)areabout“what”,4)isabout“how”.)16.A:DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?B:Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.(违反了数量原则，提供的信息少于所须.)含义：Idon’twanttotellyou.A:Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.(违反了质量原则，说了谎.)含义：Idon’treallywanttocome.A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.Don’tyouthink?B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?(违反了关联原则，答非所问.)含义：Idon’twanttomakeanycommentsonthehostessinsucharudeway.17.A:Let’sgetthekidssomething.B:Okay,butIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(违反了方式原则，拐弯抹角，咬文嚼字，其中必有缘故.)含义：Idon’twantthechildrentoknowwearetalkingaboutice-cream.A:WhereisBill?B:ThereisablueVWoutsideSue’shouse.违反了关联原则。18.A:Shallwegotothecinematonight?B:Therewillbeanexamtomorrow.I’lltakeanexamtomorrow.Isn’tthereanexamtomorrow?ButconversationalimplicaturesrelatedtotheMannermaximsareexceptionstothischaracteristic:A:Let’sgetthekidssomethingB:IvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-S.Butdon’tgivethemicecreams.19.EgA:We’llallmissBillandRose,won’twe?B:Well,we’llallmissBill.根据CP,B说话人违反了量的原则，只说Bill,不提Rose.但他这样做显然是有意的。由于某种原因他可能对Rose心怀不满，但碍于情面，不便直说，促使他违反CP,很明显，PP在起着作用。A:Someonehaseatentheicingofthecake!B:Itwasn’tme!这一例中，B通过违反关系原则，暗示Itwassomeoneelse.至于是谁，他却不愿说出来。20.A:Thetelephoneisringing.Canyouanswerit?B:I’minthebathroom.A:Tomhasjustborrowedyourcar.B:Well,IlikeThat!（以示不满）A:Bobisreallymischievous,isn’the?B:Childrenarechildren.很明显，以上几例都说明PP在某些情况下起到补充甚至挽救CP的作用。Sociolinguisticsstudiesallaspects