运用概念整合理论分析英语委婉语

Acknowledgements

Igreatlyappreciateallthesupportthathasbeengivenonthethesispresentedhere.First

andforemost,Ishouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomyadviser,ProfessorZhang

Haiying,forherdeepinsightandgreatpatienceaswellasconstructivecommentsinaiding

methroughouttheprocessofwritingthisthesis.Withoutherthought-provoking

instructionsandconstantencouragement,thethesiswouldnotappearinthepresentform.

Secondly,mygratitudealsogoestootherprofessorsandteachersfortheirilluminating

lecturesandpreciousadviceswhichinspiredandnurturedmeduringmystudyformaster

degreeatthecollegeofForeignlanguagesofShanghaiMaritimeUniversity.

Thirdly,myheartfeltgratitudeisextendedtoallofmyfriends,classmateswhohave

offeredmehelpfulsuggestionandvaluablereferencebooksduringthewritingofthis

thesis.

Andlastbutnotleast,Iowespecialthankstomyfamilywho,inonewayoranother,

helpedmeallthetimeinthecompletionofthisthesis.

摘要

“委婉语如此深深地嵌入我们的语言，以至于我们中间没有谁(即使那些自诩为

直截了当的人)能够在不使用委婉语的情况下过完每一天的"。(Rawson,1995：1)

很久以来，很多学者从修辞学，语义学，语用学，社会语言学等角度对英语委婉

语都各有特色，但从认知角度进行研究的却很少。因此本文试图从概念整合理论出发,

通过框架和映射二个视角来探讨英语委婉语的意义生成机制和解读过程。文章所用语

料儿乎全部出自国内--部最权威的英语委婉语词典：刘纯豹教授所编《英语委婉语词

典》，希望能给英语委婉语认知研究提供更加有力的语料来源。

全文共分为五章。

第一章主要是论文的研究目的，意义，委婉语认知角度研究的文献综述，以及论

文的结构。

第二章概述英语委婉语的定义，历史，动机，以及构成。

第三章主要介绍概念整合理论。

第四章通过概念整合理论中框架(Frame)和映射(Mappings)二个视角，结合实例对

英语委婉语的意义生成机制和解读过程进行具体分析。

第五章是对全文的总结。

通过分析，我们得知：在概念整合理论指导下，凭借框架(Frame),映射(Mappings)

二个视角，很多英语委婉语都能得到很详尽的认知诠释。就英语委婉语的认知机制来

说，从模糊的语义意义到清晰的语用意义就是一个认知过程。在其过程中听者对于禁

忌语的注意力不再集中而是极大的扩散从而使禁忌所带来不佳的影响大幅度的被淡

化，甚至暂时地被掩饰。

关键词：概念整合；英语委婉语；框架；映射；认知机制

Abstract

"Euphemismsareembeddedsodeeplyinourlanguagethatfewofus,eventhosewho

pridethemselveson(in)beingplain-spoken,evergothroughadaywithoutthem”.

(Rawson,1995：1)

Englisheuphemismshavelongattractedmuchattentionfromscholarsfromvarious

perspectivessuchasrhetoric,semantics,pragmatics,andsociolinguistics,etc.Yet,they

havebeenseldomstudiedfromthecognitiveapproach.Asaboldendeavor,thispresent

thesisappliestheConceptualIntegrationTheorytotheanalysisofEnglisheuphemismsto

discovertheircognitivemechanismandmeaningconstruction.Mostoftheexamplesare

takenfromAdictionaryofEnglisheuphemismscompiledbyProf.LiuChunbao.

Thisthesisconsistsoffivechapters:

Chapter1istheintroduction,explainingtheobjectivesandsignificanceofthethesis.

Literaturereviewandtheorganizationofthethesisarealsopresentedinthispart.

Chapter2discussesthedefinition,history,motivations,andcognitiveformation

mechanismsofEnglisheuphemisms.

Chapter3introducestheconceptualintegrationtheory.

Chapter4appliestheConceptualIntegrationTheorytotheanalysisofEnglish

euphemisms

Chapter5presentstheconclusionreachedinthisthesis.

Themainconclusiondrawnfromthepresentthesisisthat,accordingtoframesand

mappings,manyEnglisheuphemismsareavailabletobecognitivelyanalyzedtothefull.

Moreover,basedonanalysesofcognitivemechanisminEnglisheuphemismsin

chapter4,wecometolearnthatthechangefromunclearsemanticmeaningtoclear

pragmaticmeaninginvolvesacognitiveprocessduringwhichtheattentionfocusofa

conceptsignifiedbytabooissoenormouslydiffusedthatitsevocativeimpactisgreatly

lessenedoreventemporallyconcealedtotheutmost.

Keyword:conceptualintegration,Englisheuphemisms,frames,mappings,

cognitivemechanism

Contents

Chapter1Introduction...........................................................................................................................1

1.1ObjectivesandPurposes.........................................................................................................1

1.2SignificanceofthePresentResearch....................................................................................1

1.3LiteratureReview...................................................................................................................2

1.4TheOrganizationoftheThesis.............................................................................................4

Chapter2EnglishEuphemisms...........................................................................................................5

2.1DefinitionandHistoryofEnglishEuphemisms...................................................................5

2.1.1Definition.....................................................................................................................5

2.1.2History.........................................................................................................................6

2.2TheMotivationsofEmergenceofEuphemisms................................................................8

2.2.1Taboo...........................................................................................................................8

2.2.2Politeness..................................................................................................................10

2.2.3Humor........................................................................................................................11

2.2.4Concealing..................................................................................................................12

2.3CognitiveFormationMechanismsofEnglishEuphemisms.............................................13

2.3.1TransferandDispersionofAttentionFocus............................................................13

ConceptualMetaphor....................................................................................13

ConceptualMetonymy..................................................................................14

2.3.2CulturalImageTransformation................................................................................16

2.3.3TemporaryThoughtBlockingduringtheCognitiveProcess................................16

2.4Summary...............................................................................................................................18

Chapter3ConceptualIntegrationTheory.........................................................................................19

3.1MentalSpaceTheory............................................................................................................19

3.2AnIntroductiontoConceptualIntegrationTheory...........................................................21

3.3TheNetworkModelofConceptualIntegrationTheory....................................................22

3.3.1DescriptionofSomeKeyTerms..............................................................................22

MentalSpace..................................................................................................22

Mapping.........................................................................................................23

Projection.......................................................................................................24

3.3.2TheNetworkModel.................................................................................................24

3.4VitalRelations......................................................................................................................28

3.5NetworkModelTypes..........................................................................................................30

3.5.1SimplexNetworks.....................................................................................................31

3.5.2MirrorNetwork.........................................................................................................32

3.5.3Single-Scope-Network...........................................................................................33

3.5.4Double-Scope-Network..........................................................................................34

3.5.5Multi-Scope-Network.............................................................................................35

3.6Summary...............................................................................................................................35

Chapter4AnalysisofEnglishEuphemismsbyCIT........................................................................37

4.1Methodology.........................................................................................................................37

4.1.1CorpusSelection.......................................................................................................37

4.1.2AnalyticalMethodsandProcedures...........................................................................39

4.2EuphemismsforOccupation...............................................................................................39

4.2.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................39

4.2.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................40

4.3EuphemismsforGender.......................................................................................................49

4.3.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................49

4.3.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................50

4.4EuphemismsforBody..........................................................................................................52

4.4.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................52

4.4.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................52

4.5EuphemismsforDisease......................................................................................................55

4.5.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................55

4.5.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................55

4.6EuphemismsforDeath.........................................................................................................59

4.6.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................59

4.6.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................60

4.7EuphemismsforWarandPolitics.......................................................................................63

4.7.1GeneralDescription..................................................................................................63

4.7.2AnalysisofExamples...............................................................................................65

4.8Summary...............................................................................................................................71

Chapter5Conclusion............................................................................................................................72

Bibliography..........................................................................................................................................74

Chapter1Introduction

1.1ObjectivesandPurposes

Foralongtime,manyascholaranalyzedEnglisheuphemismsfromvariouspointsof

view,contributingenormouslytotheresearchofEnglisheuphemismsfromtheirunique

perspectives.Nevertheless,fewscholarshavetriedtoprobeintothegreatpartthatthe

cognitivemechanismplaysintheprocessofmeaningconstructionandinterpretation.

Simpleastheymayseem,euphemismshavealwayspuzzledlinguistsaswellas

psychologistsduetotheirmeaningconstructioninthecognitiveprocessandreasoning

mechanismintheinterpretationprocess.However,withtherapiddevelopmentofcognitive

science,cognitivelinguisticshasemergedasadistinguishedsubjectinthepast20years.

FauconnierandTurner,scholarsofeminenceinthelinguisticfield,createdtheConceptual

IntegrationTheory(CIT)incollaborationinthe1990s.Duringthepastfewyears,some

researchersathomeandabroadhavemadetentativeeffortstoanalyzemultifarious

linguisticphenomenainthelightofthistheory,yieldingsubstantialandplentifulfruits.

BasedonframesandmappingsofCIT,whichwasputforwardbyFauconnierandother

scholars,thepresentresearchiscarriedoutinanattempttodiscoverthecognitive

mechanismandmeaningconstructionofEnglisheuphemismswithvividandconcrete

examples.

1.2SignificanceofthePresentResearch

Thepresentresearchisofgreatsignificanceatboththeoreticalandpracticallevels.

Theoretically,ConceptualIntegrationTheoryfocusesonthehumancognition,behavior,

language,andthemetaphormechanismoflanguageinparticularviakeepingtrackof

meaningconstructiononamovingmode.(Fauconnier,1998:133)Ityieldsacademic

achievementsthatbecomeentrenchedinconceptualstructureandgrammarandlaysmore

stressonthecognitivemeaningoftheemergentstructurethroughtheprocessof

composition,completion,andelaborationsoastodecipherthemysteryiceberghidden

behindtheon-lineconstructionofmeaningandfurtherprobeintotheuniversallawof

languagecognition.AccordingtoFauconnier&Turner(2002),ratherthananewcreation,

conceptualintegrationis,infact,oneoftheessentialtoolsbymeansofwhichwecan

apprehendandevenconstructthisworld.ApplicationofConceptualIntegrationTheoryto

analyzingEnglisheuphemismsdisplaysnotonlytheexplanatorypowerofCIT,butalso

expandstheresearchfieldofCIT.

Practically,onaccountoftheirwidespreaduseineveryareaofsociallifethroughout

theworld,euphemismsonawholeboastofdifferenceinmechanism,motivation,culture

andcharacteristics;thereforetheydeserveoureffortstoconductaprofoundresearch.With

theaidofCIT,itwouldbeeasytogetacrosstheimplicaturesofEnglisheuphemisms,

whichisalsoakindofcognitivephenomenon.Furthermore,somethinguniquelyexpressed

inEnglisheuphemisms,whichrangesfromculturalaspectstocustomsand

socio-psychologyinBritish-Americansociety,couldalsobeconveyed.Inthissense,the

interpretationofEnglisheuphemismswiththeaidofCITisofprofoundsignificancein

reducingculturalmisunderstandings,mitigatingculturalconflictsandpromotingcultural

exchange.

1.3LiteratureReview

Cognitivelinguistics,anewbranchoflearning,hasattractedattentionofmoreand

morescholars,whohaveconductedseriesofresearchesintoit.

WangYongzhong(2003)holdsthatthesemanticrelationbetweeneuphemismsand

taboosisn'tsynonymicatall.Accordingly,traditionalsemanticsfailstoexplainthe

semanticrelationbetweenthemandthereforeisn'tcapableofdecipheringtheoperating

mechanismofeuphemismstothefullextent.Andheelaboratesonthecognitivemotivation

ofeuphemismsintermsofthecategoryandprototypetheories.Inhisview,thecognitive

motivationofeuphemismscouldbeclassifiedintotwotypes:evolvementofmeaningfrom

prototypesensetomarginalone(poor-needy-culturallydeprived-disadvantaged),and

weakeningtypicalityoffamilyresemblance(metaphorandmetonymy:death-atrest-fall

asleep;breast-chest-bosoms-front).LiangYanchun(2003)triestousetheblendspace

theorytomakeadetailedanalysisofeuphemismsbyfocusingontheirmeaning

constructionandreasoningmechanism.ShaoJunhangandFanWeiwei(2004)illustrate

generativemechanismofeuphemismsandtheiraccurateprocessofcomprehensionfrom

thecognitiveperspective,anddividecognitivemechanismofEnglisheuphemismsinto

threetypes:transferanddispersionofattentionfocus,culturalimagetransformation,and

temporarythoughtblockingduringthecognitiveprocess(2.3CognitiveFormation

MechanismsofEuphemism).LiuRushanandJiangXiaoyu(2005)expoundtheirviewson

operatingmechanismofmetaphoricaleuphemismsanddivideitinto4types:semantic

conflict,semanticsimilarity,defamiliarization,anddualimaging.Semanticconflictrefers

toaphenomenonviolatingsemanticselectionalrestrictionorconvention.Semantic

similarityisthesimilarrelationbetweentenor(targetdomain)andvehicle(sourcedomain).

Defamiliarizationisthemeanstousesomethingfarlessfamiliarthanthetenor.Dual

imagingisthemeansofextraordinarycollocationinmetaphortoarouseinpeopleanormal

associationaswellasitscorrespondingimage.Allthesetypes,intheiropinions,are

instrumentalinunderstandingmetaphoricaleuphemism.Mainlyfromtheperspectiveof

conceptualmetonymy,LuWeizhongandKongShujuan(2006)probeintothewaysand

featuresofmeaningconstructionofsomeeuphemismsandtheirinterpretations(metonymy

generatingmechanismandlanguagemetonymy(vocabulary,grammar,andpragmatics)in

relationtoeuphemisms)andconcludethat,uponsynchronicordiachronicbasis,metonymy

isinvariablyanimportantmechanismandmeansinmeaningconstructionofsome

euphemismsaswellastheirinterpretation.ChenLiwen(2006)appliesLakoffs

ConceptualMetaphorTheorytoanalyzingthemotivationofeuphemisms.Andheclassifies

thecognitivemotivationofmetaphoricaleuphemismsintothreetypes:theweakening

resemblanceofmeaningbetweenthetargetandsourceconcepts,highlightinganduplifting

thesourceconcept,andmappingfrompsychologicallyhighlyaccessiblesourcedomainto

lowlyaccessibletargetdomain.Inhisopinion,euphemismsdemandcognitiveexplanation

ratherthantraditionalsemanticstheoryintermsoftheirinternalsemanticconstructionor

theirfundamentalmotivation.Theresemblancebetweenthesourcedomainandthetarget

domainintheconceptualsystemservesthegroundofthiscognitiveprocedure.Whenthis

resemblanceisweak,thesemanticconceptinthesalientsourcedomaingetsheightened,

andthenitismappedfrompsychologicallyhighlyaccessiblesourcedomaintolowly

accessibletargetdomain,andthusactivatesthetargetdomainandmakesitsconceptsalient.

Andfinallyheconcludesthatconceptualmetaphortheorycanhelppeopleunderstandthe

semanticconstructionofeuphemismsandmaysteerrelevantstudytoadynamicandopen

fieldandthereforeitprovidesanewperspectiveforthestudyofeuphemismsmotivation.

Laterin2007,heutilizesFauconnierandTurner'scross-mappingstheorytoillustratethe

similaritiesanddifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglisheuphemismsandtheirdifferent

cognitivemechanismsinconceptualblending.Later,ZhouFujuanandTangDingjun(2008)

studythecognitivemotivationofEnglisheuphemismsandclassifymetonymic

euphemismsintofivetypes:thewholereplacingthepart,thepartreplacingthewhole,

placereplacingevent,placereplacinginstitution,andcharacteristicsofthingreplacingthe

thingperse.Andfinallytheyconcludethatconceptualmetonymy,asawayofthinking,is

nolessimportantthanconceptualmetaphorandthattheinteractionofconceptual

metonymyandothercognitivemechanismssuchasconceptualmetaphoriscapableof

providingamorepowerfulexplanationfortheconstructionofEnglisheuphemisms.

1.4TheOrganizationoftheThesis

Thepresentstudyiscomprisedoffivechapters.Chapter1givesageneralintroduction

tothewholeresearch,statestheobjectivesandsignificance,andexplainsthestructureof

thepresentthesis.Aliteraturereviewisalsomadetointroducepreviousachievementson

thesubjectmatterunderdiscussion.Chapter2givesacomprehensivedescriptionof

Englisheuphemismincludingitsdefinition,history,motivationandformation.Chapter3

introducestheConceptualIntegrationTheory.Chapter4isthemajorpartofthisthesis.

Withtheaidofframesandmappings,theauthormakestentativeeffortstointegratethe

CITtheoryintotheanalysisofEnglisheuphemismsforthepurposeofdecipheringthe

cognitivemechanismandmeaningconstructionofEnglisheuphemisms.Chapter5givesa

conclusiontothewholeresearch.

Chapter2EnglishEuphemisms

2.1DefinitionandHistoryofEnglishEuphemisms

2.1.1Definition

Euphemismissuchacommonlinguisticphenomenonthatitisgenerallyregardedasa

“lubricant”inlanguage.Etymologically,EnglishEuphemismsoriginatedfromtaboo

language.Peopletendedtousealternativeexpressionstoaverttaboowhichusually

provokedunpleasantfeelings,andthuseuphemismscameintobeing.Itisjustbymeansof

euphemismsthatpeoplebegantoexpressideasindirectlyindailycommunication.

Theword“euphemism”,whichcamefromtheGreeksuffixthatmeans"good"

andtheroot“pheme“thatmeans“speechorsaying”,refersto“tospeakwithgoodwords

orinapleasantmanner”.Nevertheless,withregardtoEnglisheuphemisms,scholarsin

differentagesputforwarddefinitionsfromdifferentaspects.

Asearlyas1656A.D,theEnglishwriterThomasBlountusedtheterm^euphemism"in

Englishforthefirsttime,definingitas“agoodorfavorableinterpretationofabadword”.

(Neaman&Silver,1983:4)Euphemism,asdefinedbyThomasBlount,describesamanner

ofspeakingthatleanstowardindirectnessintheserviceofpleasantness.In1991,Allanand

Burridgesays,“Aneuphemismisusedasanalternativetoadispreferedexpressionin

ordertoavoidpossiblelossofface,eitherone'sownface,orthroughgivingoffence,that

oftheaudience,orofsomethirdParty,9.(Allan&Burridge,1991:168-201)Later,Rawson

defineseuphemismsas"mild,agreeable,orroundaboutwordsusedinplaceofcoarse,

painfuloroffensiveones99.(Rawson,1995:10)InTheOxfordEnglishDictionary(2nd

edition),euphemismisdefinedas“Thefigureofspeechwhichconsistsinthesubstitution

ofawordorexpressionofcomparativelyfavorableimplicationorlessunpleasant

associations,insteadoftheharsherormoreoffensiveonethatwouldmoreprecisely

designatewhatisintended”.(1972:436)AndinCollinsDictionaryoftheEnglish

Language,thedefinitionis“aninoffensivewordorphrasesubstitutedforoneconsidered

offensiveorhurtful,esp.oneconcernedwithreligion,sex,deathorexcreta,9.(1979:512)At

thesametimeinWebster'sEncyclopedicUnabridgedDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,

euphemismis“thesubstitutionofamildindirectorvagueexpressionforonethought

substituted”.(Webster,1996:248)Inthissense,euphemismcomprisesnotonlywords,but

alsosentences,paragraphsandevendiscourses.Moreover,accordingtoLongman

DictionaryofContemporaryEnglish,aneuphemismis“theuseofapleasant,lessdirect

nameforsomethingthoughttobeunpleasant.(2004：636)Prof.SuDingfang(1995)puts

forwardhisdefinitionofeuphemisminbothnarrowandbroadsense:theformeris

euphemismword,usuallyestablishedbyusageandacceptedbymostmembersinsociety

afterbeingusedforalongtime;forexample/5passway“istheeuphemismof“death”;the

latteristheexpressionswithcircumbendibusfunctionwhichisformedtemporarilyby

variouslanguagemeanssuchaspronunciation(unstressed,intonation),grammar(negation,

tense,voice),discourse(texture),etc.Fromtheabove-mentioneddefinitions,wecouldsee

that,differentastheyare,thesedefinitionsindicatethatinourdailyconversation,

somethingshouldbespokeninamoreindirect,politeandpleasantway.

2.1.2History

ThehistoryofEnglisheuphemismsmightbetracedbacktoWilliam'sconquestin

1066.A.Dwhenthemotiveofusingeuphemismswasnothingbutderogatethelanguageof

Anglo-Saxonsthatwasconsideredvulgarandindecent.SoNormannobleswouldn'tliketo

demeanthemselvestospeakit;moreover,eventhenativeupper-class,forfearofbeing

regardedasuncouthbyNormans,hadchosentousemanyso-calledelegantandgraceful

wordsderivedfromFrenchandLatin.Correspondingly,numerousFrenchandLatinwords

wereassimilatedintoEnglishtoreplacethosefrankexpressions,andconsequentlyevolved

intotheoriginalEnglisheuphemisms,anintegralpartofEnglishvocabulary.Theearly

tabooswereconcernedwithreligioninthat,duringthelongcourseofhistory,Christianity

hadlaidadeepimprintoneveryaspectofBritishsociallife,anditstenetsbecamethe

commandmentsabidedbyalmostthewholesociety.Unabletoexplainsomenatural

phenomenarationally,peopleattributedthemtothemysticsupernatural.Gods,whether

benignormalevolent,werecreatedoutofaweandterror.<4SincethenamesofGodswere

consideredidenticalwiththem,tospeaktheirnameswastoevokethedivinitywhose

powerthenhadtobeconfronted.Therefore,thenamesofGodscouldnotbementioned

directly,\(Neaman&Silver,1983:1-9)Asaresult,confrontedbysuchahorriblenatural

phenomenonasdeath,peoplehadtoseekextricationsfromreligion.Concurrentlyany

expressionsthatindirectlyimplieddeathwereendowedwithmorespiritualimportsdueto

theinfluenceofreligion;therebydeatheuphemismswerecreated.Manyofthem,suchas

"returntothedust","topaythedebtofnature","tobecalledtogod”,etc.originatedfrom

theBibleandsomeotherlegends.Inaddition,religionalsoexertedanenormousinfluence

onEnglisheuphemismsinotheraspects.Forinstance,“togetsomeone'sgoat“means

“enragesomebody^^;“togetontherightsideofsomebody“refersto“curryfavorwith

somebody”;and“figleaf9denotes"G-string”,etc.allcomingoftheBible.Afterthe

PuritanRevolution,therewasanemergenceofeuphemismsconcerningorgansandsex